《數(shù)據(jù)庫系統(tǒng)》英文教學課件

《數(shù)據(jù)庫系統(tǒng)》英文教學課件,數(shù)據(jù)庫系統(tǒng),數(shù)據(jù)庫,系統(tǒng),英文,教學,課件 Tree-Structured IndexesR&G Chapter 10“If I had eight hours to chop down a tree,Id spend six sharpening my ax.”Abraham Lincoln Review:Files,Pages,RecordsAbstraction of stored data is“files”with“pages”of“records”.Records live on pagesPhysical Record ID(RID)=Variable length data requires more sophisticated structures for records and pages.(why?)Fields in Records:offset array in headerRecords on Pages:Slotted pages w/internal offsets&free space areaFiles can be unordered(heap),sorted,or kinda sorted(i.e.,“clustered”)on a search key.Tradeoffs are update/maintenance cost vs.speed of accesses via the search key.Files can be clustered (sorted)at most one way.Indexes can be used to speed up many kinds of accesses.(i.e.,“access paths”)Tree-Structured Indexes:IntroductionSelections of form field constantEquality selections(op is=)Either“tree”or“hash”indexes help here.Range selections(op is one of,=,BETWEEN)“Hash”indexes dont work for these.More complex selections(e.g.spatial containment)There are fancier trees that can do this out of scope of our course.Tree-structured indexing techniques support both range selections and equality selections.ISAM:static structure;early index technology.B+tree:dynamic,adjusts gracefully under inserts and deletes.ISAM=Indexed Sequential Access MethodA Note of CautionISAM is an old-fashioned ideaB+-trees are usually better,as well seeThough not alwaysBut,its a good place to startSimpler than B+-tree,but many of the same ideasUpshotDont brag about being an ISAM expert on your resumeDo understand how they work,and tradeoffs with B+-treesRange SearchesFind all students with gpa 3.0If data is in sorted file,do binary search to find first such student,then scan to find others.Cost of binary search in a database can be quite high.Q:Why?Simple idea:Create an index file.*Can do binary search on(smaller)index file!Page 1Page 2Page NPage 3Data Filek2kNk1Index FileISAMIndex file may still be quite large.But we can apply the idea repeatedly!*Leaf pages contain data entries.index entryNon-leafPagesPagesPrimary pagesLeafP0K1P1K2P2KmPmOverflow pageExample ISAM TreeIndex entries:they direct search for data entries in leaves.Example where each node can hold 2 entries;10*15*20*27*33*37*40*46*51*55*63*97*2033516340RootISAM is a STATIC StructureFile creation:Leaf(data)pages allocated sequentially,sorted by search key;then index pages allocated,then overflow pgs.Search:Start at root;use key comparisons to go to leaf.Cost=log F N;F=#entries/pg(i.e.,fanout),N=#leaf pgs no need for next-leaf-page pointers.(Why?)Insert:Find leaf that data entry belongs to,and put it there.Overflow page if necessary.Delete:Find and remove from leaf;if empty page,de-allocate.Static tree structure:inserts/deletes affect only leaf pages.Data PagesIndex PagesOverflow pages48*Example:Insert 23*,48*,41*,42*10*15*20*27*33*37*40*46*51*55*63*97*2033516340RootOverflowPagesLeafIndexPagesPagesPrimary23*41*42*48*10*15*20*27*33*37*40*46*51*55*63*97*2033516340RootOverflowPagesLeafIndexPagesPagesPrimary23*41*42*.then Deleting 42*,51*,97*Note that 51*appears in index levels,but not in leaf!ISAM-Issues?Pros?Cons?Insert/delete at log F N cost;keep tree height-balanced.F=fanout,N=#leaf pagesMinimum 50%occupancy(except for root).Each node contains m entries where d=m =24*.*Based on the search for 15*,we know it is not in the tree!Root1724302*3*5*7*14*16*19*20*22*24*27*29*33*34*38*39*13B+Trees in PracticeTypical order:100.Typical fill-factor:67%.average fanout=133Typical capacities:Height 2:1333=2,352,637 entriesHeight 3:1334=312,900,700 entriesCan often hold top levels in buffer pool:Level 1=1 page =8 KbytesLevel 2=133 pages=1 MbyteLevel 3=17,689 pages=133 MBytes Inserting a Data Entry into a B+TreeFind correct leaf L.Put data entry onto L.If L has enough space,done!Else,must split L(into L and a new node L2)Redistribute entries evenly,copy up middle key.Insert index entry pointing to L2 into parent of L.This can happen recursivelyTo split index node,redistribute entries evenly,but push up middle key.(Contrast with leaf splits.)Splits“grow”tree;root split increases height.Tree growth:gets wider or one level taller at top.Example B+Tree-Inserting 8*v Notice that root was split,leading to increase in height.v In this example,we can avoid split by re-distributing entries;however,this is usually not done in practice.Root1724302*3*5*7*14*16*19*20*22*24*27*29*33*34*38*39*132*3*Root17243014*16*19*20*22*24*27*29*33*34*38*39*1357*5*8*Animation:Insert 8*Root1724302*3*5*7*14*16*19*20*22*24*27*29*33*34*38*39*138*145Data vs.Index Page Split(from previous example of inserting“8*”)Observe how minimum occupancy is guaranteed in both leaf and index pg splits.Note difference between copy-up and push-up;be sure you understand the reasons for this.2*3*5*7*5Entry to be inserted in parent node.(Note that 5 iscontinues to appear in the leaf.)s copied up and2*3*5*7*8*Data Page Split8*5243013appears once in the index.Contrast17Entry to be inserted in parent node.(Note that 17 is pushed up and onlythis with a leaf split.)17243013Index Page Split5Deleting a Data Entry from a B+TreeStart at root,find leaf L where entry belongs.Remove the entry.If L is at least half-full,done!If L has only d-1 entries,Try to re-distribute,borrowing from sibling(adjacent node with same parent as L).If re-distribution fails,merge L and sibling.If merge occurred,must delete entry(pointing to L or sibling)from parent of L.Merge could propagate to root,decreasing height.In practice,many systems do not worry about ensuring half-full pages.Just let page slowly go empty;if its truly empty,just delete from tree andleave unbalanced.Deleting a Data Entry from a B+TreeStart at root,find leaf L where entry belongs.Remove the entry.If L is at least half-full,done!If L has only d-1 entries,Try to re-distribute,borrowing from sibling(adjacent node with same parent as L).If re-distribution fails,merge L and sibling.If merge occurred,must delete entry(pointing to L or sibling)from parent of L.Merge could propagate to root,decreasing height.Root1724302*3*5*7*14*16*19*20*22*24*27*29*33*34*38*39*132*3*Root17243014*16*19*20*22*24*27*29*33*34*38*39*1357*5*8*Example Tree(including 8*)Delete 19*and 20*.Example Tree(including 8*)Delete 19*and 20*.Deleting 19*is easy.Deleting 20*is done with re-distribution.Notice how middle key is copied up.2*3*Root17243014*16*19*20*22*24*27*29*33*34*38*39*1357*5*8*2*3*Root173014*16*33*34*38*39*1357*5*8*22*24*2727*29*.And Then Deleting 24*Must merge.Observe toss of index entry(on right),and pull down of index entry(below).3022*27*29*33*34*38*39*2*3*7*14*16*22*27*29*33*34*38*39*5*8*Root3013517Example of Non-leaf Re-distributionTree is shown below during deletion of 24*.(What could be a possible initial tree?)In contrast to previous example,can re-distribute entry from left child of root to right child.Root1351720223014*16*17*18*20*33*34*38*39*22*27*29*21*7*5*8*3*2*After Re-distributionIntuitively,entries are re-distributed by pushing through the splitting entry in the parent node.It suffices to re-distribute index entry with key 20;weve re-distributed 17 as well for illustration.14*16*33*34*38*39*22*27*29*17*18*20*21*7*5*8*2*3*Root13517302022Bulk Loading of a B+TreeIf we have a large collection of records,and we want to create a B+tree on some field,doing so by repeatedly inserting records is very slow.Also leads to poor leaf space utilization-why?Bulk Loading can be done much more efficiently.Initialization:Sort all data entries,insert pointer to first(leaf)page in a new(root)page.3*4*6*9*10*11*12*13*20*22*23*31*35*36*38*41*44*Sorted pages of data entries;not yet in B+treeRootBulk Loading(Contd.)Index entries for leaf pages always entered into right-most index page just above leaf level.When this fills up,it splits.(Split may go up right-most path to the root.)Much faster than repeated inserts.Exercise:what kind of buffer pool hit rate will this give you for different policies?Q1:how many references per page?Q1:how often are they re-referenced?3*4*6*9*10*11*12*13*20*22*23*31*35*36*38*41*44*RootData entry pages not yet in B+tree352312610203*4*6*9*10*11*12*13*20*22*23*31*35*36*38*41*44*6Root101223203538not yet in B+treeData entry pages Summary of Bulk LoadingOption 1:multiple inserts.Slow.Does not give sequential storage of leaves.Option 2:Bulk Loading Fewer I/Os during build.Leaves will be stored sequentially(and linked,of course).Can control“fill factor”on pages.A Note on OrderOrder(d)concept replaced by physical space criterion in practice(at least half-full).Index pages can often hold many more entries than leaf pages.Variable sized records and search keys mean different nodes will contain different numbers of entries.Even with fixed length fields,multiple records with the same search key value(duplicates)can lead to variable-sized data entries(if we use Alternative(3).Many real systems are even sloppier than this-only reclaim space when a page is completely empty.SummaryTree-structured indexes are ideal for range-searches,also good for equality searches.ISAM is a static structure.Only leaf pages modified;overflow pages needed.Overflow chains can degrade performance unless size of data set and data distribution stay constant.B+tree is a dynamic structure.Inserts/deletes leave tree height-balanced;log F N cost.High fanout(F)means depth rarely more than 3 or 4.Almost always better than maintaining a sorted file.Typically,67%occupancy on average.Usually preferable to ISAM;adjusts to growth gracefully.If data entries are data records,splits can change rids!Summary(Contd.)Key compression increases fanout,reduces height.Bulk loading can be much faster than repeated inserts for creating a B+tree on a large data set.Most widely used index in database management systems because of its versatility.One of the most optimized components of a DBMS.