輕型商用車制動(dòng)器設(shè)計(jì)【前盤后鼓式制動(dòng)器】【液壓制動(dòng)】
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河南理工大學(xué)萬方科技學(xué)院本科畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)(論文)中期檢查表指導(dǎo)教師: 職稱: 所在院(系): 機(jī)械與動(dòng)力工程學(xué)院 教研室(研究室): 機(jī)械制造 題 目輕型商用車制動(dòng)器設(shè)計(jì)學(xué)生姓名專業(yè)班級(jí) 學(xué)號(hào)一、選題質(zhì)量:(主要從以下四個(gè)方面填寫:1、選題是否符合專業(yè)培養(yǎng)目標(biāo),能否體現(xiàn)綜合訓(xùn)練要求;2、題目難易程度;3、題目工作量;4、題目與生產(chǎn)、科研、經(jīng)濟(jì)、社會(huì)、文化及實(shí)驗(yàn)室建設(shè)等實(shí)際的結(jié)合程度)本次畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)的題目為輕型商用車制動(dòng)器設(shè)計(jì),在設(shè)計(jì)計(jì)算過程中運(yùn)用到了我們機(jī)械設(shè)計(jì)制造及自動(dòng)化專業(yè)所學(xué)過課程中的機(jī)械原理、理論力學(xué)、材料力學(xué)、以及機(jī)械零件設(shè)計(jì)等很多課程專業(yè)知識(shí),并且本次對(duì)輕型商用車制動(dòng)器的設(shè)計(jì),可以作為對(duì)我大學(xué)四年所學(xué)知識(shí)的一次檢驗(yàn),檢驗(yàn)我綜合運(yùn)用知識(shí)的能力,更重要的是對(duì)所學(xué)知識(shí)的回顧溫習(xí),讓我們?cè)谧詈蟮膶W(xué)生生涯中,查漏補(bǔ)缺,提高自己的知識(shí)水平,同時(shí)也是再一次對(duì)機(jī)械制圖方法的鞏固練習(xí),加強(qiáng)了我的繪圖能力。在手繪圖紙無障礙的前提下,我還學(xué)習(xí)了用AutoCAD計(jì)算機(jī)輔助制圖進(jìn)行繪圖,這也是機(jī)械設(shè)計(jì)專業(yè)必須要掌握的基本技能之一。通過對(duì)制動(dòng)器的設(shè)計(jì)訓(xùn)練,不僅是對(duì)單獨(dú)的某個(gè)零件進(jìn)行材料的選擇、結(jié)構(gòu)的選擇、力學(xué)分析計(jì)算等還必須要滿足相互的配合,以及參考整車的相關(guān)參數(shù),對(duì)各個(gè)零部件及其結(jié)構(gòu)進(jìn)行調(diào)校,其所涉及的相關(guān)知識(shí)僅僅是靠所學(xué)課本上的東西是不夠的,還必須要查詢相關(guān)的參考文獻(xiàn),在滿足國(guó)標(biāo)要求的情況下選取適用的參數(shù),從而完成對(duì)應(yīng)的結(jié)構(gòu)設(shè)計(jì),這一過程又是對(duì)我的查閱參考文獻(xiàn)能力的一種鍛煉。總之,本次的畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì),是對(duì)大學(xué)四年所學(xué)專業(yè)課程的一次綜合性訓(xùn)練,我們一步步的由淺至深的學(xué)習(xí),所學(xué)到的知識(shí)相互聯(lián)系,相互依附,在不斷的學(xué)習(xí)和總結(jié)中,逐漸掌握越來越多的知識(shí),打下堅(jiān)實(shí)的基礎(chǔ),才能進(jìn)行本次畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)。能順利的完成本次設(shè)計(jì),也是對(duì)我在機(jī)械專業(yè)學(xué)習(xí)四年的一個(gè)肯定。對(duì)于我來說,這個(gè)課題的難易程度很適中,對(duì)我既是一個(gè)挑戰(zhàn)也是一個(gè)很好的鍛煉提高過程。不僅重溫了一下基礎(chǔ)知識(shí),檢驗(yàn)自己平時(shí)所學(xué),還拓展了相關(guān)專業(yè)的一些知識(shí),同時(shí)也了解了汽車的車型分類、結(jié)構(gòu)參數(shù)和汽車制動(dòng)器在國(guó)內(nèi)外的現(xiàn)狀和發(fā)展等等。使我在檢驗(yàn)、鞏固所學(xué)知識(shí)的同時(shí),擴(kuò)大了知識(shí)面,增長(zhǎng)了不少知識(shí)。本次設(shè)計(jì)要求3張以上A0圖紙,其中包括手繪圖紙和計(jì)算機(jī)輔助繪制圖紙,由于對(duì)AutoCAD軟件的應(yīng)用操作不太熟練,繪圖速度比較慢,用時(shí)比較長(zhǎng)。不過我覺得自己的操作水平正在逐步提高,我相信在完成接下來的圖紙繪制時(shí),操作會(huì)更熟練。本設(shè)計(jì)以輕型商用車為例,據(jù)了解其在制動(dòng)過程中,由于慣性的作用,前輪的負(fù)荷通常占汽車全部負(fù)荷的70%80%,因此前輪制動(dòng)力要比后輪大。經(jīng)過對(duì)不同制動(dòng)器優(yōu)缺點(diǎn)的比較,從經(jīng)濟(jì)與實(shí)用的角度出發(fā),根據(jù)車型、車輛所要滿足的制動(dòng)性能、國(guó)家或行業(yè)標(biāo)準(zhǔn),及制動(dòng)器本身的結(jié)構(gòu)和性能特點(diǎn),參考同類型車制動(dòng)器設(shè)計(jì),確定制動(dòng)器的類型為前盤后鼓式制動(dòng)器,即前輪盤式制動(dòng),后輪鼓式制動(dòng)。具體原因如下:從汽車各式制動(dòng)器的結(jié)構(gòu)上分析,盤式制動(dòng)器有著突出的制動(dòng)效果,經(jīng)過分析比較,目前浮鉗盤式制動(dòng)器的優(yōu)勢(shì)更加突出,并且逐漸取代其他形式的制動(dòng)器,占據(jù)著主要的市場(chǎng)地位,但考慮到實(shí)際成本的原因,目前大部分的車輛只是應(yīng)用在汽車的前輪,對(duì)于本次選擇的輕型商用車,也同樣應(yīng)用此種設(shè)計(jì)結(jié)構(gòu)。為了降低成本,在保證制動(dòng)效果達(dá)到標(biāo)準(zhǔn)的情況下,后輪制動(dòng)器選用鼓式制動(dòng)器,在眾多鼓式制動(dòng)器的結(jié)構(gòu)形式中,領(lǐng)從蹄式制動(dòng)器發(fā)展歷程較早,且其效能和效能穩(wěn)定性在各式制動(dòng)器中均居于中游;前進(jìn)、倒退行駛的制動(dòng)效果不變;便于附裝駐車制動(dòng)驅(qū)動(dòng)機(jī)構(gòu);易于調(diào)整蹄片與制動(dòng)鼓之間的間隙;且有結(jié)構(gòu)簡(jiǎn)單,成本低等優(yōu)點(diǎn)。而其他形式的鼓式制動(dòng)器都比較復(fù)雜,所以,本次設(shè)計(jì)的后輪制動(dòng)器選用領(lǐng)從蹄式制動(dòng)器。應(yīng)用這樣的結(jié)構(gòu)形式,既保證了實(shí)際的制動(dòng)效果不會(huì)讓車輛出現(xiàn)事故,又最大限度的降低了成本,這樣基本符合市場(chǎng)的生產(chǎn)規(guī)則,對(duì)于該型汽車的暢銷也會(huì)起到一定的作用。二、開題報(bào)告完成情況:首先對(duì)選題的目的和意義進(jìn)行了闡述與分析,讓我明確了自己設(shè)計(jì)的機(jī)構(gòu)是作什么用的,其在車輛安全方面的重要性。其次是對(duì)其在國(guó)內(nèi)外的發(fā)展?fàn)顩r做了分析,了解了當(dāng)今汽車制動(dòng)器的現(xiàn)狀和發(fā)展趨勢(shì)。這對(duì)于本次設(shè)計(jì)的不足,需要改進(jìn)的地方,使我受到了啟發(fā)。在指導(dǎo)老師的輔導(dǎo)下,收集并整理了大量的相關(guān)信息,又通過互聯(lián)網(wǎng)查閱到了比較多的相關(guān)資料,初步對(duì)汽車制動(dòng)器的結(jié)構(gòu)形式、管路布置、制動(dòng)驅(qū)動(dòng)機(jī)構(gòu)的結(jié)構(gòu)形式及各個(gè)部件型式做出了選擇,經(jīng)指導(dǎo)老師審閱,最終完成了本次設(shè)計(jì)的開題報(bào)告。開題報(bào)告的完成,也就表明本次設(shè)計(jì)已經(jīng)開始,接下來的設(shè)計(jì)計(jì)算工作也在抓緊時(shí)間處理。三、階段性成果:在3月10日4月6日期間,我熟悉了下課題,收集并整理了大量的相關(guān)資料。并參加了畢業(yè)實(shí)習(xí),完成了畢業(yè)實(shí)習(xí)報(bào)告。之后經(jīng)過查閱了解相關(guān)資料,對(duì)課題進(jìn)行初步研究,并與指導(dǎo)老師商討,經(jīng)老師同意,初步確定本次設(shè)計(jì)的題目,準(zhǔn)備開題,并上交開題報(bào)告。在4月7日4月13日期間,開始著手本次畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)的計(jì)算工作。首先整理并完善出制動(dòng)系的總體設(shè)計(jì)方案,包括制動(dòng)能源的選擇確定、管路的布置、簡(jiǎn)要畫出其簡(jiǎn)圖等完成一系列必要的前期準(zhǔn)備工作。在4月14日4月20日期間,確定出制動(dòng)系的主要參數(shù),包括其基本參數(shù)、同步附著系統(tǒng)的確定、制動(dòng)器最大制動(dòng)力矩的確定、鼓式制動(dòng)器的主要參數(shù)選擇、盤式制動(dòng)器的主要參數(shù)選擇等。在4月21日4月27日期間,繼續(xù)相關(guān)計(jì)算工作,并進(jìn)行強(qiáng)度校核,畫出簡(jiǎn)圖。在4月28日現(xiàn)今,對(duì)制動(dòng)性能進(jìn)行分析,完成中期檢查報(bào)告。四、存在主要問題:1、由于專業(yè)基礎(chǔ)知識(shí)不夠扎實(shí),設(shè)計(jì)經(jīng)驗(yàn)欠缺,參考資料收集不夠全面,設(shè)計(jì)主題思路還不是很清晰,對(duì)于有些簡(jiǎn)單的問題解決的不夠精準(zhǔn),同時(shí)欠缺仿真軟件的支持,無法確定其設(shè)計(jì)效果。并且有較多的相關(guān)知識(shí)綜合運(yùn)用,在設(shè)計(jì)計(jì)算過程中,運(yùn)用不是很熟練,計(jì)算過程不是很順利,需要對(duì)欠缺的知識(shí)補(bǔ)習(xí),彌補(bǔ)不足。2、由于涉及汽車專業(yè)知識(shí),在設(shè)計(jì)過程中,需要補(bǔ)充對(duì)汽車基礎(chǔ)理論知識(shí)的學(xué)習(xí),這占用了一部分時(shí)間和精力。3、用AutoCAD進(jìn)行繪圖時(shí),軟件操作不是很熟練,畫圖速度緩慢,需要在平時(shí)多加練習(xí)。五、指導(dǎo)教師對(duì)學(xué)生在畢業(yè)實(shí)習(xí)中,勞動(dòng)、學(xué)習(xí)紀(jì)律及畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)(論文)進(jìn)展等方面的評(píng)語指導(dǎo)教師: (簽名) 年 月 日5河南理工大學(xué)萬方科技學(xué)院本科畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)(論文)開題報(bào)告題目名稱輕型商用車制動(dòng)器設(shè)計(jì)學(xué)生姓名專業(yè)班級(jí)學(xué)號(hào)一、選題的目的和意義1.1引言汽車制動(dòng)系統(tǒng)是汽車的一個(gè)重要組成部分,他直接影響汽車的安全性。據(jù)有關(guān)資料介紹,在由于汽車本身造成的交通事故中,制動(dòng)系統(tǒng)故障引起的事故占事故總量的45%。雖然每萬輛車造成的死亡率呈下降趨勢(shì),但每10萬人口死亡率卻呈上升趨勢(shì)。表1-1 2010全年由于制動(dòng)系統(tǒng)故障造成的交通事故及損失情況故障原因事故次數(shù)(次)死亡人數(shù)受傷人數(shù)直接經(jīng)濟(jì)損失(元)制動(dòng)失效46631023425638645167制動(dòng)不良76332656544739413006在2010年11月召開的全國(guó)公安交通管理工作會(huì)議透露的最新統(tǒng)計(jì)數(shù)字,2010年前10個(gè)月,全國(guó)共發(fā)生交通事故379,200起,死亡80,339人。表1-1列舉了2010全年由于制動(dòng)系統(tǒng)故障造成的交通事故及損失情況。據(jù)最新統(tǒng)計(jì),2011年全國(guó)涉及人員傷亡的道路交通事故210812起,共造成62387人死亡,雖然略有所下降,但在貨車發(fā)生的交通事故中,除去排在第一位的違章駕駛以外,由于車輛機(jī)械故障而引起的交通事故仍就是最主要的原因,而在各種車輛機(jī)械故障中,制動(dòng)系統(tǒng)失效占有相當(dāng)高的比例??梢?,汽車制動(dòng)系統(tǒng)結(jié)構(gòu)設(shè)計(jì)的好壞對(duì)于行車安全方面的重要性。1.2 汽車制動(dòng)系統(tǒng)的概述汽車制動(dòng)系統(tǒng)是汽車上用以使外界(主要是路面)在汽車某些部分(主要是車輪)施加一定的力,從而對(duì)其進(jìn)行一定程度的強(qiáng)制制動(dòng)的一系列專門裝置,即是指為了在技術(shù)上保證汽車的安全行駛,提高汽車的平均速度等,而在汽車上安裝制動(dòng)裝置專門用來制動(dòng)的制動(dòng)機(jī)構(gòu)。對(duì)汽車起制動(dòng)作用的只能是作用在汽車上且方向與汽車行駛方向相反的外力,而這些外力的大小都是隨機(jī)的、不可控制的,因此汽車上必須裝設(shè)一系列專門裝置以實(shí)現(xiàn)上述功能,以便駕駛員能根據(jù)道路和交通等情況,借以使外界在汽車上某些部分施加一定的力,對(duì)汽車進(jìn)行一定程度的強(qiáng)制制動(dòng)。這種可控制的對(duì)汽車進(jìn)行制動(dòng)的外力,統(tǒng)稱為制動(dòng)力。這樣的一系列專門裝置即稱為汽車制動(dòng)系統(tǒng)。制動(dòng)系統(tǒng)的一般工作原理是,利用與車身(或車架)相連的非旋轉(zhuǎn)元件和與車輪(或傳動(dòng)軸)相連的旋轉(zhuǎn)元件之間的相互摩擦來阻止車輪的轉(zhuǎn)動(dòng)或轉(zhuǎn)動(dòng)的趨勢(shì),以達(dá)到車輛減速,或直至停車的目的。1.3 汽車制動(dòng)系統(tǒng)的類型、組成及功用1.3.1 制動(dòng)系統(tǒng)的類型(1)按制動(dòng)系統(tǒng)的作用分類行車制動(dòng)系統(tǒng)使正在行使中的汽車減速或在最短的距離內(nèi)停車的一套專門裝置。駐車制動(dòng)系統(tǒng)使停止的汽車駐留在原地不動(dòng)的一套裝置。應(yīng)急系統(tǒng)在行車制動(dòng)系失效的情況下,保證汽車仍能實(shí)現(xiàn)減速或停車的一套裝置。輔助制動(dòng)系統(tǒng)在汽車長(zhǎng)下坡時(shí)用以穩(wěn)定車速的一套裝置。(2)按制動(dòng)操縱能源分類人力制動(dòng)系統(tǒng)以駕駛員的肢體作為唯一的制動(dòng)能源的制動(dòng)系統(tǒng)。動(dòng)力制動(dòng)系統(tǒng)完全靠由發(fā)動(dòng)機(jī)的動(dòng)力轉(zhuǎn)化而成的氣壓或液壓形式的勢(shì)能進(jìn)行制動(dòng)的系統(tǒng)。伺服制動(dòng)系統(tǒng)兼用人力和發(fā)動(dòng)機(jī)動(dòng)力進(jìn)行制動(dòng)的制動(dòng)系統(tǒng)。(3)按照制動(dòng)能量的傳輸方式,制動(dòng)系又可分為機(jī)械式、液壓式、氣壓式和電磁式等。同時(shí)采用兩種以上方式的制動(dòng)系,可稱為組合式制動(dòng)系。1.3.2 制動(dòng)系統(tǒng)的組成任何制動(dòng)系都具有以下四個(gè)基本組成部分:(1)供能裝置包括供給、調(diào)節(jié)制動(dòng)所需能量以及改善傳能介質(zhì)狀態(tài)的各種部件。其中,產(chǎn)生制動(dòng)能量的部位稱為制動(dòng)能源。(2)控制裝置包括產(chǎn)生制動(dòng)動(dòng)作和控制制動(dòng)效果的各種部件。(3)傳動(dòng)裝置包括將制動(dòng)能量傳輸?shù)街苿?dòng)器的各個(gè)部件。(4)制動(dòng)器產(chǎn)生阻礙車輛的運(yùn)動(dòng)或運(yùn)動(dòng)趨勢(shì)的力的部件,其中也包括輔助制動(dòng)系中的緩速裝置。1.3.3 制動(dòng)系的功用使行駛中的汽車按照駕駛員的要求進(jìn)行強(qiáng)制減速甚至停車;使已停駛的汽車在各種道路條件下(包括在坡道上)穩(wěn)定駐車;使下坡行駛的汽車速度保持穩(wěn)定。 1.4 總結(jié) 從汽車誕生時(shí)起,汽車制動(dòng)系統(tǒng)就在車輛安全方面扮演著至關(guān)重要的角色,特別是近年來,隨著車輛技術(shù)的進(jìn)步和汽車行駛速度的提高,這種重要性體現(xiàn)得越來越明顯。伴隨著節(jié)能型和清潔型能源汽車的研究開發(fā),汽車動(dòng)力系統(tǒng)發(fā)生了很大的改變,出現(xiàn)了很多新的結(jié)構(gòu)型式和功能形式,新型動(dòng)力系統(tǒng)的出現(xiàn)也要求制動(dòng)系統(tǒng)結(jié)構(gòu)型式和功能形式發(fā)生相應(yīng)的改變。但最終目的始終是為了使高速行駛的汽車減速或在最短的距離內(nèi)停車。如果該系統(tǒng)不能正常工作,車上的駕駛員和乘客將受到車禍的危害,所以分析和研究汽車制動(dòng)系統(tǒng)具有極其重要的意義。在種類汽車制動(dòng)系統(tǒng)中,制動(dòng)器是汽車制動(dòng)系中用以產(chǎn)生阻止車輛運(yùn)動(dòng)或運(yùn)動(dòng)趨勢(shì)的力的部件。只有了解了其基本結(jié)構(gòu),清楚了其工作原理,分析出可能會(huì)出現(xiàn)的失效形式,才能準(zhǔn)確的找出是什么原因引起的制動(dòng)系統(tǒng)故障,從而才能對(duì)存在安全隱患的地方進(jìn)行改良,只有這樣才能完善制動(dòng)系統(tǒng),避免故障的再次發(fā)生。所以,對(duì)汽車制動(dòng)系統(tǒng)設(shè)計(jì)的研究是十分有必要的,且有著深刻的意義。二、國(guó)內(nèi)外研究綜述由于汽車制動(dòng)系統(tǒng)在車輛安全方面占據(jù)著顯著的地位,眾多的汽車工程師在改進(jìn)汽車制動(dòng)性能的研究中傾注了大量的心血。目前關(guān)于汽車制動(dòng)的研究主要集中在制動(dòng)控制方面,包括制動(dòng)控制的理論和方法,以及采用新的技術(shù)。2.1 制動(dòng)控制系統(tǒng)的歷史最原始的制動(dòng)控制只是駕駛員操縱一組簡(jiǎn)單的機(jī)械裝置向制動(dòng)器施加作用力,這時(shí)的車輛的質(zhì)量比較小,速度比較低,機(jī)械制動(dòng)雖已滿足車輛制動(dòng)的需要,但隨著汽車自質(zhì)量的增加,助力裝置對(duì)機(jī)械制動(dòng)器來說已顯得十分必要。這時(shí),開始出現(xiàn)真空助力裝置。1932年生產(chǎn)的質(zhì)量為2860kg的凱迪拉克V16車四輪采用直徑419.1mm的鼓式制動(dòng)器,并有制動(dòng)踏板控制的真空助力裝置。林肯公司也于1932年推出V12轎車,該車采用通過四根軟索控制真空加力器的鼓式制動(dòng)器。隨著科學(xué)技術(shù)的發(fā)展及汽車工業(yè)的發(fā)展,尤其是軍用車輛及軍用技術(shù)的發(fā)展,車輛制動(dòng)有了新的突破,液壓制動(dòng)是繼機(jī)械制動(dòng)后的又一重大革新。Duesenberg Eight車率先使用了轎車液壓制動(dòng)器。克萊斯勒的四輪液壓制動(dòng)器于1924年問世。通用和福特分別于1934年和1939年采用了液壓制動(dòng)技術(shù)。到20世紀(jì)50年代,液壓助力制動(dòng)器才成為現(xiàn)實(shí)。20世紀(jì)80年代后期,隨著電子技術(shù)的發(fā)展,世界汽車技術(shù)領(lǐng)域最顯著的成就就是防抱制動(dòng)系統(tǒng)(ABS)的實(shí)用和推廣。ABS集微電子技術(shù)、精密加工技術(shù)、液壓控制技術(shù)為一體,是機(jī)電一體化的高技術(shù)產(chǎn)品。它的安裝大大提高了汽車的主動(dòng)安全性和操縱性。防抱裝置一般包括三部分:傳感器、控制器(電子計(jì)算機(jī))與壓力調(diào)節(jié)器。傳感器接受運(yùn)動(dòng)參數(shù),如車輪角速度、角加速度、車速等傳送給控制裝置,控制裝置進(jìn)行計(jì)算并與規(guī)定的數(shù)值進(jìn)行比較后,給壓力調(diào)節(jié)器發(fā)出指令。1936年,博世公司申請(qǐng)一項(xiàng)電液控制的ABS裝置專利促進(jìn)了防抱制動(dòng)系統(tǒng)在汽車上的應(yīng)用。1969年的福特使用了真空助力的ABS制動(dòng)器;1971年,克萊斯勒車采用了四輪電子控制的ABS裝置。這些早期的ABS裝置性能有限,可靠性不夠理想,且成本高。1979年,默本茨推出了一種性能可靠、帶有獨(dú)立液壓助力器的全數(shù)字電子系統(tǒng)控制的ABS制動(dòng)裝置。1985年美國(guó)開發(fā)出帶有數(shù)字顯示微處理器、復(fù)合主缸、液壓制動(dòng)助力器、電磁閥及執(zhí)行器“一體化”的ABS防抱裝置。隨著大規(guī)模集成電路和超大規(guī)模集成電路技術(shù)的出現(xiàn),以及電子信息處理技術(shù)的高速發(fā)展,ABS以成為性能可靠、成本日趨下降的具有廣泛應(yīng)用前景的成熟產(chǎn)品。1992年ABS的世界年產(chǎn)量已超過1000萬輛份,世界汽車ABS的裝用率已超過20%。一些國(guó)家和地區(qū)(如歐洲、日本、美國(guó)等)已制定法規(guī),使ABS成為汽車的標(biāo)準(zhǔn)設(shè)備。2.2 制動(dòng)控制系統(tǒng)的現(xiàn)狀當(dāng)考慮基本的制動(dòng)功能量,液壓操縱仍然是最可靠、最經(jīng)濟(jì)的方法。即使增加了防抱制動(dòng)(ABS)功能后,傳統(tǒng)的“油液制動(dòng)系統(tǒng)”仍然占有優(yōu)勢(shì)地位。但是就復(fù)雜性和經(jīng)濟(jì)性而言,增加的牽引力控制、車輛穩(wěn)定性控制和一些正在考慮用于“智能汽車”的新技術(shù)使基本的制動(dòng)器顯得微不足道。傳統(tǒng)的制動(dòng)控制系統(tǒng)只做一樣事情,即均勻分配油液壓力。當(dāng)制動(dòng)踏板踏下時(shí),主缸就將等量的油液送到通往每個(gè)制動(dòng)器的管路,并通過一個(gè)比例閥使前后平衡。而ABS或其他一種制動(dòng)干預(yù)系統(tǒng)則按照每個(gè)制動(dòng)器的需要時(shí)對(duì)油液壓力進(jìn)行調(diào)節(jié)。目前,車輛防抱制動(dòng)控制系統(tǒng)(ABS)已發(fā)展成為成熟的產(chǎn)品,并在各種車輛上得到了廣泛的應(yīng)用,但是這些產(chǎn)品基本都是基于車輪加、減速門限及參考滑移率方法設(shè)計(jì)的。方法雖然簡(jiǎn)單實(shí)用,但是其調(diào)試比較困難,不同的車輛需要不同的匹配技術(shù),在許多不同的道路上加以驗(yàn)證;從理論上來說,整個(gè)控制過程車輪滑移率不是保持在最佳滑移率上,并未達(dá)到最佳的制動(dòng)效果。另外,由于編制邏輯門限ABS有許多局限性,所以近年來在ABS的基礎(chǔ)上發(fā)展了車輛動(dòng)力學(xué)控制系統(tǒng)(VDC)。結(jié)合動(dòng)力學(xué)控制的最佳ABS是以滑移率為控制目標(biāo)的ABS,它是以連續(xù)量控制形式,使制動(dòng)過程中保持最佳的、穩(wěn)定的滑移率,理論上是一種理想的ABS控制系統(tǒng)。滑移率控制的難點(diǎn)在于確定各種路況下的最佳滑移率,另一個(gè)難點(diǎn)是車輛速度的測(cè)量問題,它應(yīng)是低成本可靠的技術(shù),并最終能發(fā)展成為使用的產(chǎn)品。對(duì)以滑移率為目標(biāo)的ABS而言,控制精度并不是十分突出的問題,并且達(dá)到高精度的控制也比較困難;因?yàn)槁访婕败囕v運(yùn)動(dòng)狀態(tài)的變化很大,多種干擾影響較大,所以重要的問題在于控制的穩(wěn)定性,即系統(tǒng)魯棒性,應(yīng)保持在各種條件下不失控。防抱系統(tǒng)要求高可靠性,否則會(huì)導(dǎo)致人身傷亡及車輛損壞。因此,發(fā)展魯棒性的ABS控制系統(tǒng)成為關(guān)鍵?,F(xiàn)在,多種魯棒控制系統(tǒng)應(yīng)用到ABS的控制邏輯中來。除傳統(tǒng)的邏輯門限方法是以比較為目的外,增益調(diào)度PID控制、變結(jié)構(gòu)控制和模糊控制是常用的魯棒控制系統(tǒng),是目前所采用的以滑移率為目標(biāo)的連續(xù)控制系統(tǒng)。模糊控制法是基于經(jīng)驗(yàn)規(guī)則的控制,與系統(tǒng)的模型無關(guān),具有很好的魯棒性和控制規(guī)則的靈活性,但調(diào)整控制參數(shù)比較困難,無理論而言,基本上是靠試湊的方法。然而對(duì)大多數(shù)基于目標(biāo)值的控制而言,控制規(guī)律有一定的規(guī)律。另外,也有采用其它的控制方法,如基于狀態(tài)空門及線性反饋理論的方法,模糊神經(jīng)網(wǎng)絡(luò)控制系統(tǒng)等。各種控制方法并不是單獨(dú)應(yīng)用在汽車上,通常是幾種控制方法組合起來實(shí)施。如可以將模糊控制和PID結(jié)合起來,兼顧模糊控制的魯棒性和PID控制的高精度,能達(dá)到很好的控制效果。車輪的驅(qū)動(dòng)打滑與制動(dòng)抱死是很類似的問題。在汽車起動(dòng)或加速時(shí),因驅(qū)動(dòng)力過大而使驅(qū)動(dòng)輪高速旋轉(zhuǎn)、超過摩擦極限而引起打滑。此時(shí),車輪同樣不具有足夠的側(cè)向力來保持車輛的穩(wěn)定,車輪切向力也減少,影響加速性能。由此看出,防止車輪打滑與抱死都是要控制汽車的滑移率,所以在ABS的基礎(chǔ)上發(fā)展了驅(qū)動(dòng)防滑系統(tǒng)(ASR)。ASR是ABS的邏輯和功能擴(kuò)展。ABS在增加了ASR功能后,主要的變化是在電子控制單元中增加了驅(qū)動(dòng)防滑邏輯系統(tǒng),來監(jiān)測(cè)驅(qū)動(dòng)輪的轉(zhuǎn)速。ASR大多借用ABS的硬件,兩者共存一體,發(fā)展成為ABS/ASR系統(tǒng)。目前,ABS/ASR已在歐洲新載貨車中普遍使用,并且歐共體法規(guī)EEC/71/320已強(qiáng)制性規(guī)定在總質(zhì)量大于3.5t的某些載貨車上使用,重型車是首先裝用的。然而ABS/ASR只是解決了緊急制動(dòng)時(shí)附著系數(shù)的利用,并可獲得較短的制動(dòng)距離及制動(dòng)方向穩(wěn)定性,但是它不能解決制動(dòng)系統(tǒng)中的所有缺陷。因此ABS/ASR功能,同時(shí)可進(jìn)行制動(dòng)強(qiáng)度的控制。ABS只有在極端情況下(車輪完全抱死)才會(huì)控制制動(dòng),在部分制動(dòng)時(shí),電子制動(dòng)使可控制單個(gè)制動(dòng)缸壓力,因此反應(yīng)時(shí)間縮短,確保在任一瞬間得到正確的制動(dòng)壓力。近幾年電子技術(shù)及計(jì)算機(jī)控制技術(shù)的飛速發(fā)展為EBS的發(fā)展帶來了機(jī)遇。德國(guó)自20世紀(jì)80年代以來率先發(fā)展了ABS/ASR系統(tǒng)并投入市場(chǎng),在EBS的研究與發(fā)展過程中走到了世界的前列。德國(guó)博世公司在1993年與斯堪尼公司聯(lián)合首次在Scania牽引車及掛車上裝用了EBS。然而EBS是全新的系統(tǒng),它有很大的潛力,必將給現(xiàn)在及將來的制動(dòng)系統(tǒng)帶來革命性的變革。2.3 制動(dòng)控制系統(tǒng)的發(fā)展今天,ABS/ASR已經(jīng)成為歐美和日本等發(fā)達(dá)國(guó)家汽車的標(biāo)準(zhǔn)設(shè)備。車輛制動(dòng)控制系統(tǒng)的發(fā)展主要是控制技術(shù)的發(fā)展。一方面是擴(kuò)大控制范圍、增加控制功能;另一方面是采用優(yōu)化控制理論,實(shí)施伺服控制和高精度控制。在第一方面,ABS功能的擴(kuò)充除ASR外,同時(shí)把懸架和轉(zhuǎn)向控制擴(kuò)展進(jìn)來,使ABS不僅僅是防抱死系統(tǒng),而成為更綜合的車輛控制系統(tǒng)。制動(dòng)器開發(fā)廠商還提出了未來將ABS/TCS和VDC與智能化運(yùn)輸系統(tǒng)一體化運(yùn)用的構(gòu)想。隨著電子控制傳動(dòng)、懸架系統(tǒng)及轉(zhuǎn)向裝置的發(fā)展,將產(chǎn)生電子控制系統(tǒng)之間的聯(lián)系網(wǎng)絡(luò),從而產(chǎn)生一些新的功能,如:采用電子控制的離合器可大大提高汽車靜止啟動(dòng)的效率;在制動(dòng)過程中,通過輸入一個(gè)驅(qū)動(dòng)命令給電子懸架系統(tǒng),能防止車輛的俯仰。在第二個(gè)方面,一些智能控制技術(shù)如神經(jīng)網(wǎng)絡(luò)控制技術(shù)是現(xiàn)在比較新的控制技術(shù),已經(jīng)有人將其應(yīng)用在汽車的制動(dòng)控制系統(tǒng)中。ABS/ASR并不能解決汽車制動(dòng)中的所有問題。因此由ABS/ASR進(jìn)一步發(fā)展演變成電子控制制動(dòng)系統(tǒng)(EBS),這將是控制系統(tǒng)發(fā)展的一個(gè)重要的方向。但是EBS要想在實(shí)際中應(yīng)用開來,并不是一個(gè)簡(jiǎn)單的問題。除技術(shù)外,系統(tǒng)的成本和相關(guān)的法規(guī)是其投入應(yīng)用的關(guān)鍵。經(jīng)過了一百多年的發(fā)展,汽車制動(dòng)系統(tǒng)的形式已經(jīng)基本固定下來。隨著電子,特別是大規(guī)模、超大規(guī)模集成電路的發(fā)展,汽車制動(dòng)系統(tǒng)的形式也將發(fā)生變化。如凱西-海斯(K-H)公司在一輛實(shí)驗(yàn)車上安裝了一種電-液(EH)制動(dòng)系統(tǒng),該系統(tǒng)徹底改變了制動(dòng)器的操作機(jī)理。通過采用4個(gè)比例閥和電力電子控制裝置,K-H公司的EBM就能考慮到基本制動(dòng)、ABS、牽引力控制、巡航控制制動(dòng)干預(yù)等情況,而不需另外增加任何一種附加裝置。EBM系統(tǒng)潛在的優(yōu)點(diǎn)是比標(biāo)準(zhǔn)制動(dòng)器能更加有效地分配基本制動(dòng)力,從而使制動(dòng)距離縮短5%。一種完全無油液、完全的電路制動(dòng)BBW(Brake-By-Wire)的開發(fā)使傳統(tǒng)的液壓制動(dòng)裝置成為歷史。2.4 全電路制動(dòng)(BBW)BBW是未來制動(dòng)控制系統(tǒng)的發(fā)展方向。全電制動(dòng)不同于傳統(tǒng)的制動(dòng)系統(tǒng),因?yàn)槠鋫鬟f的是電,而不是液壓油或壓縮空氣,可以省略許多管路和傳感器,縮短制動(dòng)反應(yīng)時(shí)間。全電制動(dòng)的結(jié)構(gòu)如下圖所示。其主要包含以下部分:電制動(dòng)器。其結(jié)構(gòu)和液壓制動(dòng)器基本類似,有盤式和鼓式兩種,作動(dòng)器是電動(dòng)機(jī);電制動(dòng)控制單元(ECU)。接收制動(dòng)踏板發(fā)出的信號(hào),控制制動(dòng)器制動(dòng);接收駐車制動(dòng)信號(hào),控制駐車制動(dòng);接收車輪傳感器信號(hào),識(shí)別車輪是否抱死、打滑等,控制車輪制動(dòng)力,實(shí)現(xiàn)防抱死和驅(qū)動(dòng)防滑。由于各種控制系統(tǒng)如衛(wèi)星定位、導(dǎo)航系統(tǒng),自動(dòng)變速系統(tǒng),無級(jí)轉(zhuǎn)向系統(tǒng),懸架系統(tǒng)等的控制系統(tǒng)與制動(dòng)控制系統(tǒng)高度集成,所以ECU還得兼顧這些系統(tǒng)的控制;輪速傳感器。準(zhǔn)確、可靠、及時(shí)地獲得車輪的速度;線束。給系統(tǒng)傳遞能源和電控制信號(hào);電源。為整個(gè)電制動(dòng)系統(tǒng)提供能源。與其他系統(tǒng)共用??梢允歉鞣N電源,也包括再生能源。從結(jié)構(gòu)上可以看出這種全電路制動(dòng)系統(tǒng)具有其他傳統(tǒng)制動(dòng)控制系統(tǒng)無法比擬的優(yōu)點(diǎn):整個(gè)制動(dòng)系統(tǒng)結(jié)構(gòu)簡(jiǎn)單,省去了傳統(tǒng)制動(dòng)系統(tǒng)中的制動(dòng)油箱、制動(dòng)主缸、助力裝置。液壓閥、復(fù)雜的管路系統(tǒng)等部件,使整車質(zhì)量降低;制動(dòng)響應(yīng)時(shí)間短,提高制動(dòng)性能;無制動(dòng)液,維護(hù)簡(jiǎn)單;系統(tǒng)總成制造、裝配、測(cè)試簡(jiǎn)單快捷,制動(dòng)分總成為模塊化結(jié)構(gòu);采用電線連接,系統(tǒng)耐久性能良好;易于改進(jìn),稍加改進(jìn)就可以增加各種電控制功能。全電制動(dòng)控制系統(tǒng)是一個(gè)全新的系統(tǒng),給制動(dòng)控制系統(tǒng)帶來了巨大的變革,為將來的車輛智能控制提供條件。但是,要想全面推廣,還有不少問題需要解決:首先是驅(qū)動(dòng)能源問題。采用全電路制動(dòng)控制系統(tǒng),需要較多的能源,一個(gè)盤式制動(dòng)器大約需要1kW的驅(qū)動(dòng)能量。目前車輛12V電力系統(tǒng)提供不了這么大的能量,因此,將來車輛動(dòng)力系統(tǒng)采用高壓電,加大能源供應(yīng),可以滿足制動(dòng)能量要求,同時(shí)需要解決高電壓帶來的安全問題。其次是控制系統(tǒng)失效處理。全電制動(dòng)控制系統(tǒng)面臨的一個(gè)難題是制動(dòng)失效的處理。因?yàn)椴淮嬖讵?dú)立的主動(dòng)備用制動(dòng)系統(tǒng),因此需要一個(gè)備用系統(tǒng)保證制動(dòng)安全,不論是ECU元件失效,傳感器失效還是制動(dòng)器本身、線束失效,都能保證制動(dòng)的基本性能。實(shí)現(xiàn)全電制動(dòng)控制的一個(gè)關(guān)鍵技術(shù)是系統(tǒng)失效時(shí)的信息交流協(xié)議,如TTP/C。系統(tǒng)一旦出現(xiàn)故障,立即發(fā)出信息,確保信息傳遞符合法規(guī)最適合的方法是多重通道分時(shí)區(qū)(TDMA),它可以保證不出現(xiàn)不可預(yù)測(cè)的信息滯后。TTP/C協(xié)議是根據(jù)TDMA制定的。第三是抗干擾處理。車輛在運(yùn)行過程中會(huì)有各種干擾信號(hào),如何消除這些干擾信號(hào)造成的影響,目前存在多種抗干擾控制系統(tǒng),基本上分為兩種:即對(duì)稱式和非對(duì)稱式抗干擾控制系統(tǒng)。對(duì)稱式抗干擾控制系統(tǒng)是用兩個(gè)相同的CPU和同樣的計(jì)算程序處理制動(dòng)信號(hào)。非對(duì)稱式抗干擾控制系統(tǒng)是用兩個(gè)不同的CPU和不一樣的計(jì)算程序處理制動(dòng)信號(hào)。兩種方法各有優(yōu)缺點(diǎn)。另外,電制動(dòng)控制系統(tǒng)的軟件和硬件如何實(shí)現(xiàn)模塊化,以適應(yīng)不同種類的車型需要;如何實(shí)現(xiàn)底盤的模塊化,是一個(gè)重要的難題。只有將制動(dòng)、轉(zhuǎn)向、懸架、導(dǎo)航等系統(tǒng)綜合考慮進(jìn)來,從算法上模塊化,建立數(shù)據(jù)總線系統(tǒng),才能以最低的成本獲得最好的控制系統(tǒng)。電制動(dòng)控制系統(tǒng)首先用在混合動(dòng)力制動(dòng)系統(tǒng)車輛上,采用液壓制動(dòng)和電制動(dòng)兩種制動(dòng)系統(tǒng)。這種混合制動(dòng)系統(tǒng)是全電制動(dòng)系統(tǒng)的過渡方案。由于兩套制動(dòng)系統(tǒng)共存,使結(jié)構(gòu)復(fù)雜,成本偏高。隨著技術(shù)的進(jìn)步,上述的各種問題會(huì)逐步得到解決,全電制動(dòng)控制系統(tǒng)會(huì)真正代替?zhèn)鹘y(tǒng)的以液壓為主的制動(dòng)控制系統(tǒng)。圖3是這種全電制動(dòng)控制系統(tǒng)的配置方案。2.5 結(jié)論綜上所述,現(xiàn)代汽車制動(dòng)控制技術(shù)正朝著電子制動(dòng)控制方向發(fā)展。全電制動(dòng)控制因其巨大的優(yōu)越性,將取代傳統(tǒng)的以液壓為主的傳統(tǒng)制動(dòng)控制系統(tǒng)。同時(shí),隨著其他汽車電子技術(shù)特別是超大規(guī)模集成電路的發(fā)展,電子元件的成本及尺寸不斷下降。汽車電子制動(dòng)控制系統(tǒng)將與其他汽車電子系統(tǒng)如汽車電子懸架系統(tǒng)、汽車主動(dòng)式方向擺動(dòng)穩(wěn)定系統(tǒng)、電子導(dǎo)航系統(tǒng)、無人駕駛系統(tǒng)等融合在一起成為綜合的汽車電子控制系統(tǒng),未來的汽車中就不存在孤立的制動(dòng)控制系統(tǒng),各種控制單元集中在一個(gè)ECU中,并將逐漸代替常規(guī)的控制系統(tǒng),實(shí)現(xiàn)車輛控制的智能化。但是,汽車制動(dòng)控制技術(shù)的發(fā)展受整個(gè)汽車工業(yè)發(fā)展的制約。有一個(gè)巨大的汽車現(xiàn)有及潛在的市場(chǎng)的吸引,各種先進(jìn)的電子技術(shù)、生物技術(shù)、信息技術(shù)以及各種智能技術(shù)才不斷應(yīng)用到汽車制動(dòng)控制系統(tǒng)中來。同時(shí)需要各種國(guó)際及國(guó)內(nèi)的相關(guān)法規(guī)的健全,這樣裝備新的制動(dòng)技術(shù)的汽車就會(huì)真正應(yīng)用到汽車的批量生產(chǎn)中。三、畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)(論文)所用的主要技術(shù)與方法:3.1 形式確定通常,汽車所用制動(dòng)器一般都采用摩擦式的,也就是阻止汽車運(yùn)動(dòng)的制動(dòng)力矩來源于固定元件和旋轉(zhuǎn)工作表面之間的摩擦。主要是盤式制動(dòng)器和鼓式制動(dòng)器兩種形式。鼓式制動(dòng)器的選用:鼓式制動(dòng)器是靠制動(dòng)塊在制動(dòng)輪上壓緊產(chǎn)生摩擦來實(shí)現(xiàn)剎車的。鼓式制動(dòng)器的形式有很多種,如領(lǐng)從蹄式制動(dòng)器、單向雙領(lǐng)蹄式制動(dòng)器、雙向雙領(lǐng)蹄式制動(dòng)器、單向自增力式制動(dòng)器、雙向自增力式制動(dòng)器、凸輪式制動(dòng)器、楔式制動(dòng)器。它們都各有利弊,其中領(lǐng)從蹄式制動(dòng)器發(fā)展較早,且其效能和效能穩(wěn)定性在各式制動(dòng)器中均居于中游;前進(jìn)、倒退行駛的制動(dòng)效果不變;便于附裝駐車制動(dòng)驅(qū)動(dòng)機(jī)構(gòu);易于調(diào)整蹄片與制動(dòng)鼓之間的間隙;且有結(jié)構(gòu)簡(jiǎn)單,成本低等優(yōu)點(diǎn)。但領(lǐng)從蹄式制動(dòng)器也有兩蹄片的壓力不等(在兩制動(dòng)蹄上的摩擦襯片面積相等的條件下),因而兩蹄片磨損不均勻、壽命不同的缺點(diǎn)。此外,因只有一個(gè)輪缸,兩制動(dòng)蹄必須在同一驅(qū)動(dòng)回路下工作。因此,本設(shè)計(jì)采用由定位銷定位的一個(gè)自由度的非平衡式的領(lǐng)從蹄式制動(dòng)器。盤式制動(dòng)器的選用:盤式制動(dòng)器又叫做碟式制動(dòng)器,一般是由液壓控制,主要的部件有制動(dòng)盤、制動(dòng)鉗、固定器,制動(dòng)輪缸等組成。按摩擦副中固定元件的結(jié)構(gòu)不同,盤式制動(dòng)器分為鉗盤式和全盤式兩類。全盤式制動(dòng)器的固定摩擦元件和旋轉(zhuǎn)元件均為圓盤形,制動(dòng)時(shí)各盤摩擦表面全部接觸。用得較多的是多片全盤式制動(dòng)器,以便獲得較大的制動(dòng)力。但這種制動(dòng)器的散熱性能較差,故多為油冷式,結(jié)構(gòu)較復(fù)雜。鉗盤式制動(dòng)器按制動(dòng)鉗的結(jié)構(gòu)型式又可分為固定鉗盤式制動(dòng)器和浮鉗盤式制動(dòng)器。定鉗盤式制動(dòng)器的制動(dòng)鉗固定安裝在車橋上,既不能旋轉(zhuǎn),也不能沿著制動(dòng)盤軸線方向移動(dòng),因此必須在制動(dòng)盤的兩側(cè)都 安裝制動(dòng)塊的促動(dòng)裝置,以便于將兩側(cè)的制動(dòng)塊分別壓向制動(dòng)盤。定鉗盤式制動(dòng)器在制動(dòng)鉗體上有兩個(gè)液壓油缸,其中各裝有一個(gè)活塞。當(dāng)壓力油液進(jìn)入兩個(gè)油缸活塞外腔時(shí),推動(dòng)兩個(gè)活塞向內(nèi)將位于制動(dòng)盤兩側(cè)的制動(dòng)塊總成壓緊到制動(dòng)盤上,從而將車輪制動(dòng)。當(dāng)放松制動(dòng)踏板使油液壓力減小時(shí),回位彈簧又將兩制動(dòng)塊總成及活塞推離制動(dòng)盤。這種型式也稱為對(duì)置活塞式或浮動(dòng)活塞式。定鉗盤式制動(dòng)器的缺點(diǎn)就是:(1)制動(dòng)盤的兩側(cè)各有液壓缸,使制動(dòng)鉗的結(jié)構(gòu)復(fù)雜。(2)液壓缸分裝于制動(dòng)盤的兩側(cè),制動(dòng)液必須跨越制動(dòng)盤的鉗內(nèi)油道或者外部的油管。(3)熱負(fù)荷較大,液壓缸和跨越制動(dòng)盤的鉗內(nèi)制動(dòng)管路或者是外部油管內(nèi)的制動(dòng)液容易氣化。(4)若想兼用于駐車制動(dòng)裝置,則必須要添加一個(gè)機(jī)械促動(dòng)的駐車制動(dòng)鉗。由于上述的種種原因,定鉗盤式制動(dòng)裝置已經(jīng)很難適應(yīng)現(xiàn)代轎車的發(fā)展趨勢(shì),也逐漸的在70年代以后讓位于浮鉗盤式制動(dòng)器。 浮鉗盤式制動(dòng)器只在制動(dòng)盤的一側(cè)裝油缸,結(jié)構(gòu)簡(jiǎn)單,造價(jià)低廉,易于布置,結(jié)構(gòu)尺寸緊湊,可以將制動(dòng)器進(jìn)一步移近輪轂,同一組制動(dòng)塊可兼用于行車和駐車制動(dòng),在兼行車和駐車制動(dòng)的情況下不需要加設(shè)駐車制動(dòng)鉗,只需要在行車制動(dòng)鉗液壓缸的附近加裝一些用于推動(dòng)液壓缸活塞的駐車制動(dòng)機(jī)械傳動(dòng)零件即可。浮動(dòng)鉗由于沒有跨越制動(dòng)盤的油道或油管,減少了受熱機(jī)會(huì),單側(cè)油缸又位于盤的內(nèi)側(cè),受車輪遮蔽較少使冷卻條件較好。另外,單側(cè)油缸的活塞比兩側(cè)油缸的活塞要長(zhǎng),也增大了油缸的散熱面積,因此制動(dòng)液溫度比用固定鉗時(shí)低3050,氣化的可能性較小。但由于制動(dòng)鉗體是浮動(dòng)的,必須設(shè)法減少滑動(dòng)處或擺動(dòng)中心處的摩擦、磨損和噪聲。因此本設(shè)計(jì)采用浮鉗盤式制動(dòng)器小結(jié):本設(shè)計(jì)以輕型商用車為例,據(jù)了解其在制動(dòng)過程中,由于慣性的作用,前輪的負(fù)荷通常占汽車全部負(fù)荷的70%80%,因此前輪制動(dòng)力要比后輪大。經(jīng)過對(duì)不同制動(dòng)器優(yōu)缺點(diǎn)的比較,從經(jīng)濟(jì)與實(shí)用的角度出發(fā),根據(jù)車型、車輛所要滿足的制動(dòng)性能、國(guó)家或行業(yè)標(biāo)準(zhǔn),及制動(dòng)器本身的結(jié)構(gòu)和性能特點(diǎn),參考同類型車制動(dòng)器設(shè)計(jì),確定制動(dòng)器的類型為前盤后鼓式制動(dòng)器,即前輪盤式制動(dòng),后輪鼓式制動(dòng)。II型 X型 HI型 LL型 HH型圖3-1 液壓分路系統(tǒng)形式3.2 制動(dòng)管路的確定為了提高制動(dòng)工作的可靠性,應(yīng)采用分路系統(tǒng),即全車的所有行車制動(dòng)器的液壓或氣壓管路分為兩個(gè)或更多的相互獨(dú)立的回路,其中一個(gè)回路失效后,仍可利用其他完好的回路起制動(dòng)作用。 雙軸汽車的雙回路制動(dòng)系統(tǒng)有以下常見的物種分路形式(如圖3-1所示):(1) 一軸對(duì)一軸(II)型,前軸制動(dòng)器與后橋制動(dòng)器各用一個(gè)回路。(2) 交叉型(X),前軸的一側(cè)車輪制動(dòng)器與后橋的對(duì)策車輪制動(dòng)器同屬一個(gè)回路。(3) 一周半對(duì)半軸(HI)型,兩側(cè)前制動(dòng)器的板書輪缸和全部后制動(dòng)器輪缸屬于一個(gè)回路,其余的前輪缸則屬另一回路。(4) 半軸一輪對(duì)半軸一輪(LL)型,兩個(gè)回路分別對(duì)兩側(cè)前輪制動(dòng)器的半數(shù)輪缸和一個(gè)后輪制動(dòng)器起作用。(5) 雙半軸對(duì)雙半軸(HH)型,每個(gè)回路均只對(duì)每個(gè)前、后制動(dòng)器的半數(shù)輪缸起作用。II型管路布置較為簡(jiǎn)單,可與傳統(tǒng)的但輪崗鼓式制動(dòng)器配合使用,成本較低,目前在各類汽車特別是商用車商用得最廣泛,所以采用II型制動(dòng)管路。3.3 制動(dòng)驅(qū)動(dòng)機(jī)構(gòu)的結(jié)構(gòu)型式選擇根據(jù)動(dòng)力源的不同,制動(dòng)驅(qū)動(dòng)機(jī)構(gòu)可分為簡(jiǎn)單制動(dòng),動(dòng)力制動(dòng),伺服制動(dòng)。(1) 簡(jiǎn)單制動(dòng)單靠駕駛員施加的踏板力或手柄力作為制動(dòng)力源,故亦稱人力制動(dòng)。有機(jī)械式和液壓式兩種。機(jī)械式結(jié)構(gòu)簡(jiǎn)單,造價(jià)低廉,工作可靠,但機(jī)械效率低,因此僅用于中小型汽車的駐車制動(dòng)裝置中。液壓式曾廣泛用于轎車,輕型及以下的貨車和部分中型貨車上,但由于其操縱較沉重,不能適應(yīng)現(xiàn)代汽車提高操縱輕便性的要求,故當(dāng)前僅用于微型汽車上,在轎車和輕型汽車上己極少采用。(2) 動(dòng)力制動(dòng)有氣壓制動(dòng),氣頂液式制動(dòng),全液壓制動(dòng)。氣壓制動(dòng)是動(dòng)力制動(dòng)最常見型式,由于可獲得較大的制動(dòng)驅(qū)動(dòng)力,且主車與被拖的掛車以及汽車列車之間制動(dòng)驅(qū)動(dòng)系統(tǒng)的連接結(jié)構(gòu)簡(jiǎn)單,因此被廣泛用于總質(zhì)量8t以上的載貨汽車,越野車和客車上。氣頂液式制動(dòng)系統(tǒng)結(jié)構(gòu)復(fù)雜,質(zhì)量大,造價(jià)高,故主要用于重型汽車上,一部分總質(zhì)量為9t-11t的中型汽車上也有所采用。全液壓制動(dòng)結(jié)構(gòu)復(fù)雜,精密件多,對(duì)系統(tǒng)的密封性要求也較高,故并未得到廣泛應(yīng)用,目前僅用于某些高級(jí)轎車,大型客車以及少數(shù)的重型礦用自卸汽車上。(3) 伺服制動(dòng)系統(tǒng)分真空伺服制動(dòng)系統(tǒng)、氣壓伺服制動(dòng)系統(tǒng)、液壓伺服制動(dòng)。真空伺服制動(dòng)是利用發(fā)動(dòng)機(jī)進(jìn)氣管中節(jié)氣門后的真空度作動(dòng)力源。一般的柴油車若采用伺服制動(dòng)系統(tǒng)時(shí),則需要專門的真空源由發(fā)動(dòng)機(jī)驅(qū)動(dòng)的真空泵或噴吸器構(gòu)成。氣壓伺服制動(dòng)是由發(fā)動(dòng)機(jī)驅(qū)動(dòng)的空氣壓縮機(jī)提供壓縮空氣作為動(dòng)力源,伺服氣壓一般0.6MPA0.7MPA。氣壓伺服制動(dòng)系統(tǒng)的組成部分比真空伺服復(fù)雜的多。真空伺服制動(dòng)用于總質(zhì)量在1.1t1.35t以上的轎車及裝載質(zhì)量在6t以下的輕中型載貨汽車上,而氣壓伺服制動(dòng)系統(tǒng)則廣泛用于裝載質(zhì)量為6t12t的中重型載貨汽車以及少數(shù)高級(jí)轎車上。液壓伺服制動(dòng)系統(tǒng)是以發(fā)動(dòng)機(jī)驅(qū)動(dòng)液壓油泵產(chǎn)生的高壓油液為伺服能源,且基本上均為助力式的。由于這種制動(dòng)系統(tǒng)的工作壓力很高,因此可大大地減小伺服機(jī)構(gòu)的尺寸,且制動(dòng)反應(yīng)快,但對(duì)零部件的加工精密度和密封性能要求很高。其僅用于高級(jí)轎車。通過以上對(duì)各種制動(dòng)驅(qū)動(dòng)機(jī)構(gòu)結(jié)構(gòu)型式的比較分析,衡量其優(yōu)缺點(diǎn),及其適用的車型最后選定液壓伺服制動(dòng)系統(tǒng)為本次設(shè)計(jì)的制動(dòng)驅(qū)動(dòng)機(jī)構(gòu)。3.4 部件型式的確定(1) 制動(dòng)主缸:制動(dòng)主缸由灰鑄鐵制造,也可以用低碳鋼冷擠成型;活塞可用灰鑄鐵,鋁合金或中碳鋼制造。主缸的作用是將駕駛員踩到制動(dòng)踏板上的壓力傳遞到四個(gè)車輪的制動(dòng)器以使汽車停車。主缸將駕駛員在踏板上的機(jī)械壓力轉(zhuǎn)變?yōu)橐簤毫?,在車輪制?dòng)器處液壓力轉(zhuǎn)變?yōu)闄C(jī)械力。主缸利用液體不可壓縮原理,將駕駛員的踏板運(yùn)動(dòng)傳送到車輪制動(dòng)器。主缸由儲(chǔ)液罐和主缸體構(gòu)成。儲(chǔ)液罐提供處缸工作的制動(dòng)液。現(xiàn)在的所有儲(chǔ)液罐都是分體設(shè)計(jì),即兩個(gè)獨(dú)立的活塞有兩個(gè)獨(dú)立的儲(chǔ)液區(qū)域。分體設(shè)計(jì)分別為前輪和后輪,或一個(gè)前輪一個(gè)后輪的液壓系統(tǒng)供液,以防一個(gè)液壓系統(tǒng)失效影響另一個(gè)液壓系統(tǒng)。本設(shè)計(jì)采用雙體設(shè)計(jì)的液壓主缸,即雙腔液壓主缸。(2) 制動(dòng)輪缸:后輪鼓式制動(dòng)器制動(dòng)輪缸是液壓活塞式制動(dòng)蹄張開機(jī)構(gòu),其機(jī)構(gòu)簡(jiǎn)單,在車輪制動(dòng)器中布置方便。輪缸的缸體由灰鑄鐵HT250制成,其缸筒為通孔,需搪磨,活塞由鋁合金制造,活塞外端壓有鋼制的開槽頂塊,以支承插入槽中的制動(dòng)蹄腹板的橡膠密封圈或靠在活塞內(nèi)端面處的橡膠皮碗密封。(3) 制動(dòng)鼓:制動(dòng)鼓的材料與摩擦襯片的材料相匹配,應(yīng)能保證具有高的摩擦系數(shù)并使工作表面磨損均勻故我選用由鋼板沖壓成型的輻板與鑄鐵鼓筒部分鑄、成一體的組合式制動(dòng)鼓。制動(dòng)蹄選用T形鋼輾壓成的制動(dòng)蹄。制動(dòng)底板是除制動(dòng)鼓外制動(dòng)器各零件的安裝基體,應(yīng)保證各安裝零件相互間的正確位置,制動(dòng)底板承受著制動(dòng)器工作時(shí)的制動(dòng)反力矩,故應(yīng)有足夠的剛度,為此我選用具有凹凸起伏形狀的鋼板沖壓成型的制動(dòng)底板。摩擦材料采用模壓。材料,它是以石棉纖維為主并與樹膠粘結(jié)劑,調(diào)整摩擦性能的填充劑與噪聲消除劑等混合后,在高溫下模壓成型的。模壓材料的撓性較差故應(yīng)安襯片或襯塊規(guī)格模壓,其優(yōu)點(diǎn)是可以選用各種不同的聚合樹脂配料,使襯片或襯塊具有不同的摩擦性能和其他性能。綜合以上特點(diǎn)總結(jié)出制動(dòng)鼓選材應(yīng)該有足夠的強(qiáng)度,剛度和熱容量,與摩擦襯片材料相配合,又應(yīng)當(dāng)有較高的摩擦因數(shù)。3.5 總結(jié)根據(jù)課題內(nèi)容、任務(wù)要求,深入了解汽車制動(dòng)系統(tǒng)的構(gòu)造及工作原理;并收集相關(guān)車輛制動(dòng)系統(tǒng)設(shè)計(jì)資料;參考現(xiàn)有研究成果,并進(jìn)行深入的學(xué)習(xí)和分析,借鑒經(jīng)驗(yàn);同時(shí)學(xué)習(xí)有關(guān)汽車零部件設(shè)計(jì)準(zhǔn)則;計(jì)算和確定主要尺寸,繪制部件裝配圖和總圖,通過自己的研究分析;發(fā)揮自己的設(shè)計(jì)能力并通過試驗(yàn)最終確定制動(dòng)系統(tǒng)設(shè)計(jì)方案,繪制全部零件工作圖,編寫說明書。同時(shí),將設(shè)計(jì)過程中發(fā)現(xiàn)的遺漏部分及時(shí)作補(bǔ)充。所用技術(shù):在這次設(shè)計(jì)中將采用機(jī)械圖形設(shè)計(jì)軟件AutoCAD2008 進(jìn)行繪圖,并參考相關(guān)設(shè)計(jì)和專業(yè)書籍,進(jìn)行設(shè)計(jì)。四、主要參考文獻(xiàn)與資料獲得情況4.1 主要參考文獻(xiàn)如下:1程國(guó)華.汽車制動(dòng)系統(tǒng)發(fā)展漫談J :汽車運(yùn)用.2003年第6期2朱育權(quán).制動(dòng)盤(鼓)研究現(xiàn)狀與發(fā)展趨勢(shì)J :西安工業(yè)學(xué)院學(xué)報(bào) 20013張海清.非石棉盤式制動(dòng)器的發(fā)展現(xiàn)狀J :汽車技術(shù).1993(6)4張國(guó)強(qiáng).車輛制動(dòng)系統(tǒng)的發(fā)展現(xiàn)狀及趨勢(shì)淺析J .農(nóng)業(yè)與技術(shù) 20095王望予.汽車設(shè)計(jì).北京:機(jī)械工業(yè)出版社M.20066劉惟信.汽車制動(dòng)系統(tǒng)的結(jié)構(gòu)分析與設(shè)計(jì)計(jì)算北京M:清華大學(xué)出版社,20047方泳龍.汽車制動(dòng)理論與設(shè)計(jì)M.北京:國(guó)防工業(yè)出版社,20058余志生.汽車?yán)碚?北京:機(jī)械工業(yè)出版社M.2006年9陳家瑞.汽車構(gòu)造(下),機(jī)械工業(yè)出版社M.2005年8月,第四版10朱旬、金海東.轎車制動(dòng)主缸結(jié)構(gòu)淺析J :汽車研究與開發(fā).1999 年第 2 期11陳步童.微型汽車制動(dòng)系統(tǒng)常見故障診斷與檢修J :無錫職業(yè)技術(shù)學(xué)院學(xué)報(bào).2003.4期12張濤,王燕玲.汽車制動(dòng)性能與測(cè)試J .儀器儀表學(xué)報(bào) .2002 13張建俊、汽車檢測(cè)技術(shù)M .北京:高等教育出版社 .20034.2 資料獲取情況如下:從學(xué)校圖書館借閱相關(guān)圖書;從網(wǎng)上搜索相關(guān)資料,例如在學(xué)校圖書館網(wǎng)頁上下載相關(guān)文獻(xiàn)或期刊;在設(shè)計(jì)過程中遇到難題時(shí)向指導(dǎo)老師和專業(yè)老師請(qǐng)教;五、畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)(論文)進(jìn)度安排: 時(shí) 間 內(nèi) 容3.10-3.15 熟悉課題,收集和整理資料3.16-3.23 畢業(yè)實(shí)習(xí),調(diào)研3.24-4.06 提出研究方案,準(zhǔn)備開題4.07-4.13 制動(dòng)器參數(shù)初步計(jì)算 4.14-4.20 制動(dòng)器參數(shù)計(jì)算4.21-4.27 強(qiáng)度校核計(jì)算4.28-5.04 制動(dòng)性能分析及編程5.05-5.11 繪制裝配草圖、繪制裝配圖5.12-5.18 中期檢查、繪制零件圖5.19-5.25 完善圖紙5.26-6.01 寫設(shè)計(jì)計(jì)算說明書6.02-6.08 審閱圖紙6.09-6.10 準(zhǔn)備答辯六、指導(dǎo)教師審批意見指導(dǎo)教師: (簽名)年 月 日 河南理工大學(xué)萬方科技學(xué)院畢 業(yè) 設(shè) 計(jì)(論 文)附 錄I中 英 文 文 獻(xiàn) 翻 譯姓 名: 所在院系: 機(jī)械與動(dòng)力工程系 專業(yè)班級(jí): 機(jī)械設(shè)計(jì)08-3班 學(xué) 號(hào): 指導(dǎo)教師: 原文標(biāo)題: Automobile Brake System2012 年 5 月 25 日Automobile Brake SystemThe braking system is the most important system in cars. If the brakes fail, the result can be disastrous. Brakes are actually energy conversion devices, which convert the kinetic energy (momentum) of the vehicle into thermal energy (heat).When stepping on the brakes, the driver commands a stopping force ten times as powerful as the force that puts the car in motion. The braking system can exert thousands of pounds of pressure on each of the four brakes.Two complete independent braking systems are used on the car. They are the service brake and the parking brake.The service brake acts to slow, stop, or hold the vehicle during normal driving. They are foot-operated by the driver depressing and releasing the brake pedal. The primary purpose of the brake is to hold the vehicle stationary while it is unattended. The parking brake is mechanically operated by when a separate parking brake foot pedal or hand lever is set.The brake system is composed of the following basic components: the “master cylinder” which is located under the hood, and is directly connected to the brake pedal, converts driver foots mechanical pressure into hydraulic pressure. Steel “brake lines” and flexible “brake hoses” connect the master cylinder to the “slave cylinders” located at each wheel. Brake fluid, specially designed to work in extreme conditions, fills the system. “Shoes” and “pads” are pushed by the slave cylinders to contact the “drums” and “rotors” thus causing drag, which (hopefully) slows the car.The typical brake system consists of disk brakes in front and either disk or drum brakes in the rear connected by a system of tubes and hoses that link the brake at each wheel to the master cylinder .Basically, all car brakes are friction brakes. When the driver applies the brake, the control device forces brake shoes, or pads, against the rotating brake drum or disks at wheel. Friction between the shoes or pads and the drums or disks then slows or stops the wheel so that the car is braked.In most modern brake systems, there is a fluid-filled cylinder, called master cylinder, which contains two separate sections, there is a piston in each section and both pistons are connected to a brake pedal in the drivers compartment. When the brake is pushed down, brake fluid is sent from the master cylinder to the wheels.At the wheels, the fluid pushes shoes, or pads, against revolving drums or disks. The friction between the stationary shoes, or pads, and the revolving drums or disks slows and stops them. This slows or stops the revolving wheels, which, in turn, slow or stop the car.The brake fluid reservoir is on top of the master cylinder. Most cars today have a transparent r reservoir so that you can see the level without opening the cover. The brake fluid level will drop slightly as the brake pads wear. This is a normal condition and no cause for concern. If the level drops noticeably over ashort period of time or goes down to about two thirds full, have your brakes checked as soon as possible. Keep the reservoir covered except for the amount of time you need to fill it and never leave a cam of brake fluid uncovered. Brake fluid must maintain a very high boiling point. Exposure to air will cause the fluid to absorb moisture which will lower that boiling point.The brake fluid travels from the master cylinder to the wheels through a series of steel tubes and reinforced rubber hoses. Rubber hoses are only used in places that require flexibility, such as at the front wheels, which move up and down as well as steer. The rest of the system uses non-corrosive seamless steel tubing with special fittings at all attachment points. If a steel line requires a repair, the best procedure is to replace the compete line. If this is not practical, a line can be repaired using special splice fittings that are made for brake system repair. You must never use copper tubing to repair a brake system. They are dangerous and illegal.Drum brakes, it consists of the brake drum, an expander, pull back springs, a stationary back plate, two shoes with friction linings, and anchor pins. The stationary back plate is secured to the flange of the axle housing or to the steering knuckle. The brake drum is mounted on the wheel hub. There is a clearance between the inner surface of the drum and the shoe lining. To apply brakes, the driver pushes pedal, the expander expands the shoes and presses them to the drum. Friction between the brake drum and the friction linings brakes the wheels and the vehicle stops. To release brakes, the driver release the pedal, the pull back spring retracts the shoes thus permitting free rotation of the wheels.Disk brakes, it has a metal disk instead of a drum. A flat shoe, or disk-brake pad, is located on each side of the disk. The shoes squeeze the rotatin g disk to stop the car. Fluid from the master cylinder forces the pistons to move in, toward the disk. This action pushes the friction pads tightly against the disk. The friction between the shoes and disk slows and stops it. This provides the braking action. Pistons are made of either plastic or metal. There are three general types of disk brakes. They are the floating-caliper type, the fixed-caliper type, and the sliding-caliper type. Floating-caliper and sliding-caliper disk brakes use a single piston. Fixed-caliper disk brakes have either two or four pistons.Brakes - what do they do?Brakes are designed to slow down your vehicle but probably not by the means that you think. The common misconception is that brakes squeeze against a drum or disc, and the pressure of the squeezing action is what slows you down. This in fact is only part of the equation. Brakes are essentially a mechanism to change energy types. When youre travelling at speed, your vehicle has kinetic energy. When you apply the brakes, the pads or shoes that press against the brake drum or rotor convert that energy into thermal energy via friction. The cooling of the brakes dissipates the heat and the vehicle slows down. Its the First Law of Thermodynamics, sometimes known as the law of conservation of energy. This states that energy cannot be created nor destroyed, it can only be converted from one form to another. In the case of brakes, it is converted from kinetic energy to thermal energy. Angular force. Because of the configuration of the brake pads and rotor in a disc brake, the location of the point of contact where the friction is generated also provides a mechanical moment to resist the turning motion of the rotor. Thermodynamics, brake fade and drilled rotors.If you ride a motorbike or drive a race car, youre probably familiar with the term brake fade, used to describe what happens to brakes when they get too hot. A good example is coming down a mountain pass using your brakes rather than your engine to slow you down. As you start to come down the pass, the brakes on your vehicle heat up, slowing you down. But if you keep using them, the rotors or drums stay hot and get no chance to cool off. At some point they cant absorb any more heat so the brake pads heat up instead. In every brake pad there is the friction material that is held together with some sort of resin and once this starts to get too hot, the resin starts to vapourise, forming a gas. Because the gas cant stay between the pad and the rotor, it forms a thin layer between the two whilst trying to escape. The pads lose contact with the rotor, reducing the amount of friction and voila. Complete brake fade. The typical remedy for this would be to get the vehicle to a stop and wait for a few minutes. As the brake components cool down, their ability to absorb heat returns and the next time you use the brakes, they seem to work just fine. This type of brake fade was more common in older vehicles. Newer vehicles tend to have less outgassing from the brake pad compounds but they still suffer brake fade. So why? Its still to do with the pads getting too hot. With newer brake pad compounds, the pads transfer heat into the calipers once the rotors are too hot, and the brake fluid starts to boil forming bubbles in it. Because air is compressible (brake fluid isnt) when you step on the brakes, the air bubbles compress instead of the fluid transferring the motion to the brake calipers. Voila. Modern brake fade. So how do the engineers design brakes to reduce or eliminate brake fade? For older vehicles, you give that vapourised gas somewhere to go. For newer vehicles, you find some way to cool the rotors off more effectively. Either way you end up with cross-drilled or grooved brake rotors. While grooving the surface may reduce the specific heat capacity of the rotor, its effect is negligible in the grand scheme of things. However, under heavy braking once everything is hot and the resin is vapourising, the grooves give the gas somewhere to go, so the pad can continue to contact the rotor, allowing you to stop. The whole understanding of the conversion of energy is critical in understanding how and why brakes do what they do, and why they are designed the way they are. If youve ever watched Formula 1 racing, youll see the front wheels have huge scoops inside the wheel pointing to the front (see the picture above). This is to duct air to the brake components to help them cool off because in F1 racing, the brakes are used viciously every few seconds and spend a lot of their time trying to stay hot. Without some form of cooling assistance, the brakes would be fine for the first few corners but then would fade and become near useless by half way around the track. Rotor technology.If a brake rotor was a single cast chunk of steel, it would have terrible heat dissipation properties and leave nowhere for the vapourised gas to go. Because of this, brake rotors are typically modified with all manner of extra design features to help them cool down as quickly as possible as well as dissapate any gas from between the pads and rotors. The diagram here shows some examples of rotor types with the various modification that can be done to them to help them create more friction, disperse more heat more quickly, and ventilate gas. From left to right. 1: Basic brake rotor. 2: Grooved rotor - the grooves give more bite and thus more friction as they pass between the brake pads They also allow gas to vent from between the pads and the rotor. 3: Grooved, drilled rotor - the drilled holes again give more bite, but also allow air currents (eddies) to blow through the brake disc to assist cooling and ventilating gas. 4: Dual ventilated rotors - same as before but now with two rotors instead of one, and with vanes in between them to generate a vortex which will cool the rotors even further whilst trying to actually suck any gas away from the pads. An important note about drilled rotors: Drilled rotors are typically only found (and to be used on) race cars. The drilling weakens the rotors and typically results in microfractures to the rotor. On race cars this isnt a problem - the brakes are changed after each race or weekend. But on a road car, this can eventually lead to brake rotor failure - not what you want. I only mention this because of a lot of performance suppliers will supply you with drilled rotors for street cars without mentioning this little fact. Big rotors.How does all this apply to bigger brake rotors - a common sports car upgrade? Sports cars and race bikes typically have much bigger discs or rotors than your average family car. A bigger rotor has more material in it so it can absorb more heat. More material also means a larger surface area for the pads to generate friction with, and better heat dissipation. Larger rotors also put the point of contact with the pads further away from the axle of rotation. This provides a larger mechanical advantage to resist the turning of the rotor itself. To best illustrate how this works, imagine a spinning steel disc on an axle in front of you. If you clamped your thumbs either side of the disc close to the middle, your thumbs would heat up very quickly and youd need to push pretty hard to generate the friction required to slow the disc down. Now imagine doing the same thing but clamping your thumbs together close to the outer rim of the disc. The disc will stop spinning much more quickly and your thumbs wont get as hot. That, in a nutshell explains the whole principle behind why bigger rotors = better stopping power.The different types of brake.All brakes work by friction. Friction causes heat which is part of the kinetic energy conversion process. How they create friction is down to the various designs. Bicycle wheel brakesI thought Id cover these because theyre about the most basic type of functioning brake that you can see, watch working, and understand. The construction is very simple and out-in-the-open. A pair of rubber blocks are attached to a pair of calipers which are pivoted on the frame. When you pull the brake cable, the pads are pressed against the side or inner edge of the bicycle wheel rim. The rubber creates friction, which creates heat, which is the transfer of kinetic energy that slows you down. Theres only really two types of bicycle brake - those on which each brake shoe shares the same pivot point, and those with two pivot points. If you can look at a bicycle brake and not understand whats going on, the rest of this page is going to cause you a bit of a headache. Drum brakes - single leading edgeThe next, more complicated type of brake is a drum brake. The concept here is simple. Two semicircular brake shoes sit inside a spinning drum which is attached to the wheel. When you apply the brakes, the shoes are expanded outwards to press against the inside of the drum. This creates friction, which creates heat, which transfers kinetic energy, which slows you down. The example below shows a simple model. The actuator in this case is the blue elliptical object. As that is twisted, it forces against the brake shoes and in turn forces them to expand outwards. The return spring is what pulls the shoes back away from the surface of the brake drum when the brakes are released. See the later section for more information on actuator types. The single leading edge refers to the number of parts of the brake shoe which actually contact the spinning drum. Because the brake shoe pivots at one end, simple geometry means that the entire brake pad cannot contact the brake drum. The leading edge is the term given to the part of the brake pad which does contact the drum, and in the case of a single leading edge system, its the part of the pad closest to the actuator. This diagram (right) shows what happens as the brakes are applied. The shoes are pressed outwards and the part of the brake pad which first contacts the drum is the leading edge. The action of the drum spinning actually helps to draw the brake pad outwards because of friction, which causes the brakes to bite. The trailing edge of the brake shoe makes virtually no contact with the drum at all. This simple geometry explains why its really difficult to stop a vehicle rolling backwards if its equipped only with single leading edge drum brakes. As the drum spins backwards, the leading edge of the shoe becomes the trailing edge and thus doesnt bite. Drum brakes - double leading edgeThe drawbacks of the single leading edge style of drum brake can be eliminated by adding a second return spring and turning the pivot point into a second actuator. Now when the brakes are applied, the shoes are pressed outwards at two points. So each brake pad now has one leading and one trailing edge. Because there are two brake shoes, there are two brake pads, which means there are two leading edges. Hence the name double leading edge. Disc brakesSome background. Disc brakes were invented in 1902 and patented by Birmingham car maker Frederick William Lanchester. His original design had two discs which pressed against each other to generate friction and slow his car down. It wasnt until 1949 that disc brakes appeared on a production car though. The obscure American car builder Crosley made a vehicle called the Hotshot which used the more familiar brake rotor and calipers that we all know and love today. His original design was a bit crap though - the brakes lasted less than a year each. Finally in 1954 Citron launched the way-ahead-of-its-time DS which had the first modern incarnation of disc brakes along with other nifty stuff like self-levelling suspension, semi-automatic gearbox, active headlights and composite body panels. (all things which were re-introduced as new by car makers in the 90s). Disc brakes are an order of magnitude better at stopping vehicles than drum brakes, which is why youll find disc brakes on the front of almost every car and motorbike built today. Sportier vehicles with higher speeds need better brakes to slow them down, so youll likely see disc brakes on the rear of those too.The brake system assemblies are actuated by mechanical, hydraulic or pneumatic devices. The mechanical leverage is used in the parking brakes fitted in all automobile. When the brake pedal is depressed, the rod pushes the piston of brake master cylinder which presses the fluid. The fluid flows through the pipelines to the power brake unit and then to the wheel cylinder. The fluid pressure expands the cylinder pistons thus pressing the shoes to the drum or disk. If the pedal is released, the piston returns to the initialposition, the pull back springs retract the shoes, the fluid is forced back to the master cylinder and braking ceases.The primary purpose of the parking brake is to hold the vehicle stationary while it is unattended. The parking brake is mechanically operated by the driver when a separate parking braking hand lever is set. The hand brake is normally used when the car has already stopped. A lever is pulled and the rear brakes are approached and locked in the “on” position. The car may now be left without fear of its rolling away. When the driver wants to move the car again, he must press a button before the lever can be released. The hand brake must also be able to stop the car in the event of the foot brake failing. For this reason, it is separate from the foot brake uses cable or rods instead of the hydraulic system.Anti-lock Brake SystemAnti-lock brake systems make braking safer and more convenient, Anti-lock brake systems modulate brake system hydraulic pressure to prevent the brakes from locking and the tires from skidding on slippery pavement or during a panic stop.Anti-lock brake systems have been used on aircraft for years, and some domestic car were offered with an early form of anti-lock braking in late 1990s. Recently, several automakers have introduced more sophisticated anti-lock system. Investigations in Europe, where anti-lock brakin g systems have been available for a decade, have led one manufacture to state that the number of traffic accidents could be reduced by seven and a half percent if all cars had anti-lock brakes. So some sources predict that all cars will offer anti-lock brakes to improve the safety of the car. Anti-lock systems modulate brake application force several times per second to hold the tires at a controlled amount of slip; all systems accomplish this in basically the same way. One or more speed sensors generate alternating current signal whose frequency increases with the wheel rotational speed. An electronic control unit continuously monitors these signals and if the frequency of a signal drops too rapidly indicating that a wheel is about to lock, the control unit instructs a modulat
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