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英文技術(shù)資料及中文翻譯
中文翻譯
機(jī)械設(shè)計(jì)及最優(yōu)設(shè)計(jì)
機(jī)械設(shè)計(jì)是一門通過設(shè)計(jì)新產(chǎn)品或者改進(jìn)老產(chǎn)品，滿足人類需求的應(yīng)用技術(shù)科學(xué)。它涉及工程技術(shù)各個(gè)領(lǐng)域，主要研究產(chǎn)品的尺寸、形狀和詳細(xì)結(jié)構(gòu)的基本構(gòu)思，還要研究產(chǎn)品在制造、銷售和使用等方面的問題。
進(jìn)行各種機(jī)械設(shè)計(jì)工作的人員通常被稱為設(shè)計(jì)人員或者設(shè)計(jì)工程師。機(jī)械設(shè)計(jì)是一門創(chuàng)造性的工作。設(shè)計(jì)工程師不僅在工作上面有創(chuàng)新性，還必須在機(jī)械制圖、運(yùn)動(dòng)學(xué)、運(yùn)力學(xué)、工程材料、材料力學(xué)和機(jī)械制造工藝等方面有深厚的基礎(chǔ)知識(shí)。
如前面所述，機(jī)械設(shè)計(jì)的目的是生產(chǎn)滿足人類的需求的產(chǎn)品。發(fā)明、發(fā)現(xiàn)和科學(xué)知識(shí)本身并不一定能給人類帶來好處，只有當(dāng)它們被用在產(chǎn)品上才能產(chǎn)生效益。因而，應(yīng)該認(rèn)識(shí)到在一個(gè)特定產(chǎn)品進(jìn)行設(shè)計(jì)之前，必須先確定人們是否需要這種產(chǎn)品。
應(yīng)當(dāng)把機(jī)械設(shè)計(jì)看成是設(shè)計(jì)人員運(yùn)用創(chuàng)造性的才能進(jìn)行產(chǎn)品設(shè)計(jì)、系統(tǒng)分析和制訂產(chǎn)品的制造工藝的一個(gè)良機(jī)。掌握工程基礎(chǔ)知識(shí)要比熟記一些數(shù)據(jù)和公式更為重要。僅僅使用數(shù)據(jù)和公式是不足在一個(gè)好的設(shè)計(jì)中做出所需的全部決定的。另一方面，應(yīng)該認(rèn)真精確地進(jìn)行所有的運(yùn)算。例如，即使將一個(gè)小數(shù)點(diǎn)的位置放錯(cuò)，也會(huì)是正確的設(shè)計(jì)變成錯(cuò)誤的。
一個(gè)好的設(shè)計(jì)人員應(yīng)該勇于提出新的想法，而且愿意承擔(dān)一定的風(fēng)險(xiǎn)；但新的方法不使用時(shí)，就恢復(fù)采用原來的方法。因此，設(shè)計(jì)人員必須要有耐心，因?yàn)樗ㄙM(fèi)的時(shí)間和努力并不能保證帶來成功。一個(gè)全新的設(shè)計(jì)，要摒棄許多許多陳舊的的，為人們所熟知的方法。由于許多人易于墨守陳規(guī)，這樣做并不是件容易的事情。一位設(shè)計(jì)過程師應(yīng)該不斷地探索改進(jìn)現(xiàn)有產(chǎn)品的方法，在此過程中應(yīng)該認(rèn)真選擇原有的、經(jīng)過驗(yàn)證的設(shè)計(jì)原理，將其與未經(jīng)過驗(yàn)證的新觀念結(jié)合起來。
新設(shè)計(jì)本身會(huì)有許多缺陷和未能預(yù)料的問題發(fā)生，只有當(dāng)這些缺陷和問題被解決之后，才能體現(xiàn)出新產(chǎn)品的優(yōu)越性。因此，一個(gè)性能優(yōu)越的產(chǎn)品誕生的同時(shí)，也伴隨著較高的風(fēng)險(xiǎn)。應(yīng)該強(qiáng)調(diào)的是，如果設(shè)計(jì)本身不要求采用全新的方法，就沒必要僅僅為了變革的目的而采用新的方法。
在設(shè)計(jì)的在設(shè)計(jì)的初始階段，應(yīng)該允許設(shè)計(jì)人員充分發(fā)揮創(chuàng)造性，不受各種約束。即使產(chǎn)生了許多不切實(shí)際的想法，也會(huì)在設(shè)計(jì)的早期，即繪制圖紙之前被改正掉。只有這樣，才不致于堵塞創(chuàng)新的思路。通常，要提出幾套設(shè)計(jì)方案，然后加以比較。很有可能在最后選定的方案中，采用了某些未被接受的方案中的一些想法。
心理學(xué)家經(jīng)常談?wù)撊绾问谷藗冞m應(yīng)他們所操作的機(jī)器。設(shè)計(jì)人員的基本職責(zé)是努力使機(jī)器來適應(yīng)人們。這并不是一項(xiàng)容易的工作，因?yàn)閷?shí)際上并不存在著一個(gè)對(duì)所有人來說都是最優(yōu)的操作范圍和操作過程。
另一個(gè)重要問題，設(shè)計(jì)工程師必須能夠同其他有關(guān)人員進(jìn)行交流和磋商。在開始階段，設(shè)計(jì)人員必須就初步設(shè)計(jì)同管理人員進(jìn)行交流和磋商，并得到批準(zhǔn)。這一般是通過口頭討論，草圖和文字材料進(jìn)行的。為了進(jìn)行有效的交流 ，需要解決下列問題：
（1） 所設(shè)計(jì)的這個(gè)產(chǎn)品是否真正為人們所需要？
（2） 此產(chǎn)品與其他公司的現(xiàn)有同類產(chǎn)品相比有無競爭能力？
（3） 生產(chǎn)這種產(chǎn)品是否經(jīng)濟(jì)？
（4） 產(chǎn)品的維修是否方便？
（5） 產(chǎn)品有無銷路？是否可以盈利？
只有時(shí)間能對(duì)上述問題給出正確答案。但是， 產(chǎn)品的設(shè)計(jì)、制造和銷售只能在對(duì)上述問題的初步肯定答案的基礎(chǔ)上進(jìn)行。設(shè)計(jì)工程師還應(yīng)該通過零件圖和裝配圖，與制造部門一起對(duì)最終設(shè)計(jì)方案進(jìn)行磋商。
通常 ，在制造過程中會(huì)出現(xiàn)某個(gè)問題?？赡軙?huì)要求對(duì)某個(gè)零件尺寸或公差作一些更改，使零件的生產(chǎn)變得容易。但是，工程上的更改必須要經(jīng)過設(shè)計(jì)人員批準(zhǔn)，以保證不會(huì)損傷產(chǎn)品的功能。有時(shí)，在產(chǎn)品的裝配時(shí)或者裝箱外運(yùn)前的試驗(yàn)中才發(fā)現(xiàn)設(shè)計(jì)中的某種缺陷。這些事例恰好說明了設(shè)計(jì)是一個(gè)動(dòng)態(tài)過程。總是存在著更好的方法來完成設(shè)計(jì)工作，設(shè)計(jì)人員應(yīng)該不斷努力，尋找這些更好的方法。
近些年來，工程材料的選擇已經(jīng)顯得重要。此外，選擇過程應(yīng)該是一個(gè)對(duì)材料的連續(xù)不斷的重新評(píng)價(jià)過程。新材料不斷出現(xiàn)，而一些原有的材料的能夠獲得的數(shù)量可能會(huì)減少。環(huán)境污染、材料的回收利用、工人的健康及安全等方面經(jīng)常會(huì)對(duì)材料選擇附加新的限制條件。為了減輕重量或者節(jié)約能源，可能會(huì)要求使用不同的材料。來自國內(nèi)和國際競爭、對(duì)產(chǎn)品維修保養(yǎng)方便性要求的提高和顧客的反饋等方面的壓力，都會(huì)促使人們對(duì)材料進(jìn)行重新評(píng)價(jià)。由于材料選用不當(dāng)造成的產(chǎn)品責(zé)任訴訟，已經(jīng)產(chǎn)生了深刻的影響。此外，材料與材料加工之間的相互依賴關(guān)系已經(jīng)被人們認(rèn)識(shí)得更清楚。因此，為了能在合理的成本和確保質(zhì)量的前提下獲得滿意的結(jié)果，設(shè)計(jì)工程師的制造工程師都必須認(rèn)真仔細(xì)地選擇、確定和使用材料。
制造任何產(chǎn)品的第一步工作都是設(shè)計(jì)。設(shè)計(jì)通?？梢苑譃閹讉€(gè)明確的階段：（a）初步設(shè)計(jì)；（b）功能設(shè)計(jì)；（c）生產(chǎn)設(shè)計(jì)。在初步設(shè)計(jì)階段，設(shè)計(jì)者著重考慮產(chǎn)品應(yīng)該具有的功能。通常要設(shè)想和考慮幾個(gè)方案，然后決定這種思想是否可行；如果可行，則應(yīng)該對(duì)其中一個(gè)或幾個(gè)方案作進(jìn)一步的改進(jìn)。在此階段，關(guān)于材料選擇唯一要考慮的問題是：是否有性能符合要求的材料可供選擇；如果沒有的話，是否有較大的把握在成本和時(shí)間都允許的限度內(nèi)研制出一種新材料。
在功能設(shè)計(jì)和工程設(shè)計(jì)階段，要做出一個(gè)切實(shí)可行的設(shè)計(jì)。在這個(gè)階段要繪制出相當(dāng)完整的圖紙，選擇并確定各種零件的材料。通常要制造出樣機(jī)或者實(shí)物模型，并對(duì)其進(jìn)行試驗(yàn)，評(píng)價(jià)產(chǎn)品的功能、可靠性、外觀和維修保養(yǎng)性等。雖然這種試驗(yàn)可能會(huì)表明，在產(chǎn)品進(jìn)入到生產(chǎn)階段之前，應(yīng)該更換某些材料，但是，絕對(duì)不能將這一點(diǎn)作為不認(rèn)真選擇材料的借口。應(yīng)該結(jié)合產(chǎn)品的功能，認(rèn)真仔細(xì)地考慮產(chǎn)品的外觀、成本和可靠性。一個(gè)很有成就的公司在制造所有的樣機(jī)時(shí)，所選用的材料應(yīng)該和其生產(chǎn)中使用的材料相同，并盡可能使用同樣的制造技術(shù)。這樣對(duì)公司是很有好處的。功能完備的樣機(jī)如果不能根據(jù)預(yù)期的銷售量經(jīng)濟(jì)地制造出來，或者是樣機(jī)與正式生產(chǎn)的裝置在質(zhì)量和可靠性方面有很大不同，則這種樣機(jī)就沒有多大的價(jià)值。設(shè)計(jì)工程師最好能在這一階段完全完成材料的分析、選擇和確定工作，而不是將其留到生產(chǎn)設(shè)計(jì)階段去做。因?yàn)?，在生產(chǎn)設(shè)計(jì)階段材料的更換是由其他人進(jìn)行的，這些人對(duì)產(chǎn)品的所有功能的了解不如設(shè)計(jì)工程師。
在生產(chǎn)設(shè)計(jì)階段中，與材料有關(guān)的主要問題是應(yīng)該把材料完全確定下來，使它們與現(xiàn)有的設(shè)備相適應(yīng)，能夠利用現(xiàn)有設(shè)備經(jīng)濟(jì)地進(jìn)行加工，而且材料的數(shù)量能夠比較容易保證供應(yīng)。
在制造過程中，不可避免地會(huì)出現(xiàn)對(duì)使用中的材料做一些更改的情況。經(jīng)驗(yàn)表明，可采用某些便宜材料作為替代品。然而，在大多數(shù)情況下，在進(jìn)行生產(chǎn)以后改換材料要比在開始生產(chǎn)前改換材料所花費(fèi)的代價(jià)要高。在設(shè)計(jì)階段做好材料選擇工作，可以避免多數(shù)這樣的情況。在生產(chǎn)制造開始后出現(xiàn)了可供使用的新材料是更換材料的最常見的原因。當(dāng)然，這些新材料可能降低成本、改進(jìn)產(chǎn)品的性能。但是，必須對(duì)新材料進(jìn)行認(rèn)真的評(píng)價(jià)，以確保其所有性能都滿足要求。應(yīng)當(dāng)記住，新材料的性能和可靠性很少像現(xiàn)有材料那樣為人們所了解。大部分的產(chǎn)品失效和產(chǎn)品責(zé)任事故案件是由于在選用新材料作為替代材料之前，沒有真正了解它們的長期使用性能而引起的。
產(chǎn)品的責(zé)任訴訟迫使設(shè)計(jì)人員和公司在選擇材料時(shí)，采用最好的程序。在材料過程中，五個(gè)最常見的問題為：（a）不了解或者不會(huì)使用關(guān)于材料應(yīng)用方面的最新最好的信息資料；(b)未能預(yù)見和考慮擦黑年品可能的合理用途（如有可能，設(shè)計(jì)人員還應(yīng)進(jìn)一步預(yù)測和考慮由于產(chǎn)品使用方法不當(dāng)造成的后果。在近年來的許多產(chǎn)品責(zé)任訴訟案件中，由于錯(cuò)誤地使用產(chǎn)品而受到傷害的原告控告生產(chǎn)廠家，并且贏得判決）；(c)所使用的材料的數(shù)據(jù)不全或是有些數(shù)據(jù)不確定，尤其是當(dāng)其長期性能數(shù)據(jù)是如此的時(shí)候；(d)質(zhì)量控制方法不適當(dāng)和未經(jīng)驗(yàn)證；(e)由一些完全不稱職的人員選擇材料。
通過對(duì)上述五個(gè)問題的分析，可以得出這些問題是沒有充分理由存在的結(jié)論。對(duì)這些問題的研究分析可以為避免這些問題的出現(xiàn)指明方向。盡管采用最好的材料選擇方法也不能避免發(fā)生產(chǎn)品責(zé)任訴訟，設(shè)計(jì)人員和工業(yè)界按照適當(dāng)?shù)某绦蜻M(jìn)行材料選擇，可以大大減少訴訟的數(shù)量。
從以上的討論可以看出，選擇材料的人們應(yīng)該對(duì)材料的性質(zhì)，特點(diǎn)和加工方法有一個(gè)全面而基本的了解。
當(dāng)加工鋁時(shí)，我們主要關(guān)心的是：鋁粘住加工切削邊緣的傾向；保證有好的碎片排屑形成切削邊緣；和保證工具有足夠的中心強(qiáng)度來承受切削力而不被破壞。
技術(shù)發(fā)展，比如：Makino MAG系列，已經(jīng)使工具商重新考慮任何工藝水平的機(jī)器技術(shù)。用正確的加工和編程思路是很重要的。
材料，涂料和幾何形狀是與減小我們所關(guān)注問題相關(guān)系的工具設(shè)計(jì)的三個(gè)因素。如果這些因素不能一起很好的配合，成功的調(diào)整磨削是不可能的。為了成功進(jìn)行高速鋁加工，理解這三個(gè)因素是很必要的。
使組合邊緣最小化
當(dāng)加工鋁時(shí)，一個(gè)失敗的切削工具模式是，被加工的材料粘住工具切削邊緣。這種情況會(huì)很快削弱工具的切削能力。由粘著的鋁形成的組合邊緣會(huì)導(dǎo)致工具變鈍，以至不能切削材料。工具材料選擇和工具涂料選擇是被工具設(shè)計(jì)者用來減小組合邊緣出現(xiàn)的主要工藝。
亞微米微粒碳化物材料要求很高的鈷濃度來獲得良好的微粒結(jié)構(gòu)和材料強(qiáng)度屬性。隨著溫度的升高，鈷與鋁發(fā)生反應(yīng)，鈷使鋁與暴露的工具材料碳化物相粘合。一旦鋁開始粘住工具，鋁會(huì)在快速的在工具上形成組合邊緣，使工具不可用。
在切削的進(jìn)程中，減小鋁粘合著的工具的暴露碳化物的秘訣就是找到正確的碳化物的平衡來提供足夠的材料強(qiáng)度。在加工鋁時(shí)，為了減小粘附，使用能提供足夠硬度的紋理粗糙的碳化物來獲得平衡，來使變鈍變慢。
工具涂料
當(dāng)嘗試減小組合邊緣時(shí)，第二個(gè)應(yīng)該考慮的工具設(shè)計(jì)因素是工具涂料。工具涂料的選擇包括：TiN, TiAIN, AITiN，鉻氮化物，鋯氮化物，鉆石和鉆石般的涂料（DLC）。擁有這么多的選擇，航空航天磨削商店需要知道在鋁的高速加工應(yīng)用中哪一種工作最有效。TiN, TiCN, TiAIN, 和 AITiN工具的PVD涂裝應(yīng)用進(jìn)程使這些選項(xiàng)不合適鋁的應(yīng)用。PVD涂裝進(jìn)程建立了兩個(gè)使鋁粘住工具的模式---表面的粗糙程度和鋁與工具涂料之間的化學(xué)反應(yīng)。PVD進(jìn)程形成了一個(gè)表面，這表面是比底層材料更粗糙的。由這個(gè)進(jìn)程形成的表面“凹凸”使工具中的鋁在凹處快速集結(jié)。由于涂料有金屬晶體和鐵晶體特征，PVD涂料是可以和鋁發(fā)生化學(xué)反應(yīng)的。一種TiAIN涂料通常是包含鋁的，這鋁很容易和相同材料的切削表面粘合。表面粗糙度和化學(xué)反應(yīng)特性將會(huì)導(dǎo)致工具和工作片體粘在一起，以致形成組合表面。
OSG Tap and Die主導(dǎo)的試驗(yàn)中，人們發(fā)現(xiàn)在高速加工鋁時(shí)，一個(gè)沒有涂染過紋理粗糙的碳化物的工具的表面優(yōu)于用TiN, Ticn, TiAIN, 或者ALTiN涂染過的工具。這個(gè)試驗(yàn)不意味著所有工具涂料將減小工具的表現(xiàn)。鉆石和DLC涂料可生成一個(gè)非常光滑的化學(xué)惰性的表面。在切削鋁材料時(shí)，這些涂料很認(rèn)為是能非常有效的提高工具的壽命。
鉆石涂料被認(rèn)為是表現(xiàn)最佳的涂料，但這種涂料要一個(gè)很可觀的成本。對(duì)于表現(xiàn)價(jià)值，DLC涂料提供最佳成本，增加大約20%-25%的總工具成本，而壽命相對(duì)于未涂染過紋理粗糙的碳化物的工具來是，是增長得很明顯的。
幾何形狀
高速鋁加工工具設(shè)計(jì)的拇指定律就是使微粒排屑空間最大化。這是因?yàn)殇X是一種非常柔軟的材料。Federate通常是可以增長的，它生成更多更大的微粒。
Makino MAG-Series航空航天磨削機(jī)器，比如MAG4,要求額外關(guān)注工具幾何休和工具強(qiáng)度。擁有強(qiáng)大的80-hp的心軸的 MAG-Series機(jī)器將折斷工具如果他們不是用足夠的中心強(qiáng)度設(shè)計(jì)的。
總的來說，鋒利的切削邊緣一直都可以用來避免鋁的延伸。一個(gè)鋒利的切削邊緣將形成高剪切和高表面清潔，形成一個(gè)更好的表面和使表面振動(dòng)最小化。結(jié)果是用優(yōu)良的紋理碳化物材料比紋理粗糙的碳化物材料更有可能獲得一個(gè)鋒利的切削邊緣。但由于鋁能粘住紋理好的材料，長久保持這各邊緣是不太可能的。
粗略的折衷方案
紋理粗糙的材料是最好的折衷。那是一種很強(qiáng)大的材料，它能擁有一個(gè)可觀的切削邊緣。試驗(yàn)結(jié)果表明；在獲得長的工具壽命的同時(shí)擁有好的表面的可以的。通過工具來進(jìn)行油霧冷卻是可以改進(jìn)切削邊緣的保持的。霧化逐漸使工具冷卻，消除溫度急增的問題。
螺旋角度是一個(gè)額外的工具幾何考慮因素。傳統(tǒng)上來說，當(dāng)加工鋁時(shí)，帶有高螺旋角度的工具已經(jīng)被運(yùn)用。高螺旋角度可以使微粒更快地從部分脫離，但卻增加力和熱，這是由切削運(yùn)動(dòng)導(dǎo)致的。一個(gè)高螺旋角被用在工具上，并且很大數(shù)量的凹槽可以使微粒排泄。
當(dāng)以非常高的速度加工鋁時(shí)，由增加的力形成的熱量可能會(huì)引起微粒與工具焊接在一起。此外，一個(gè)有很高螺旋角的切削表面將比低角度的更快產(chǎn)生微粒。僅僅利用兩個(gè)凹槽工具設(shè)計(jì)使低螺旋角和足夠微粒排泄區(qū)域成為可能。由OSG主導(dǎo)的延伸性試驗(yàn)中，當(dāng)發(fā)展新工具流水線時(shí)，這被證明是最成功的方法。
英文技術(shù)資料
Mechanical Design and Optimum Design
Mechanical design is the application of science and technology to devise new or improved products for the purpose of satisfying human needs. It is a vast field of engineering technology which not only concerns itself with the original conception of the product in terms of its size, shape and construction details, but also consideration the various factors involved in the manufacture and use of the product.
People who perform the various function of mechanical design are typically called designers, or design engineers. Mechanical design is basically a creative activity. However, in addition to being innovative, a design engineer must also have a solid background in the areas of mechanical drawing, kinematics, dynamics, material engineering, strength of materials and manufacturing processes.
As stated previously, the purpose of mechanical design is to product which will serve a need for man. Invention, discoveries and scientific knowledge by themselves do not necessarily benefit people; only if they are incorporated into a designed product will a benefit be derived. It should be recognized, therefore, that a human need must be identified before a particular product is designed.
Mechanical design should be considered to be an opportunity to use innovation talents to envision a design of a product, to analyze the system and then make sound judgments on how the product is to be manufacture. It is important to understand the fundamentals of engineering rather than memorize mere facts and equations. There are no facts or equations which alone can be used to provide all the correct decisions required to produce a good design. On the other hand, any calculations made must be done with the utmost care and precision. For example, if a decimal point is misplaced, an otherwise acceptable design may not function.
Good designs require trying new ideas and being willing to take a certain amount of risk, knowing that if the new idea does not work the existing method can be reinstated. Thus a designer must have patience, since there is no assurance of success for the time and effort expended. Creating a completely new design generally requires that many old and well-established methods be thrust aside. This is not easy since many people cling to familiar ideas, techniques and attitudes. A design engineer should constantly search for ways to improve an existing product and must decide what old, proven concepts should be used and what new, untried ideas should be incorporated.
New designs generally have “bugs” or unforeseen problem which must be worked out before the superior characteristics of the new designs can be enjoyed. Thus there is a chance for a superior product, but only at higher risk. It should be emphasized that, if a design dose not warrant radical new methods, such methods should not be applied merely for the sake of change.
During the beginning stage of design, creativity should be allowed to flourish to without a great number of constraints. Even thought many impractical ideas may arise, it is usually easy to eliminate them in the early stages of design before firm details are required by manufacturing. In this way, innovative ideas are not inhibited. Quite often, more than one design is developed, up to point where they can be compared against each other. It is entirely possible that the design which is ultimately accepted will use ideas existing in one of the rejected design that did not show as much overall promise.
Psychologists frequently talk about trying to fit people to the machines they operate. It is essentially the responsibility of the design engineer to fit machines to people. This is not an easy task, since there is really no person for which certain operating dimension and procedures are optimum.
Another important point which should be recognized is that a design engineer must be able to communicate ideas to other people if they are to be incorporated. Communicating the design to others is the final, vital step in the design process. Undoubtedly many great designs, inventions, and creative works have been lost to mankind simply because the originator were unable or unwilling to explain their accomplishments to others. Presentation is a selling job. The engineer, when presenting a new solution to administrative, management, or supervisory persons, is attempting to sell or to prove to them that this solution is a better one. Unless this can be done successfully, the time and effort spent on obtaining the solution have been largely wasted.
Basically, there are only three means of communicate available to us. There are the written, the oral, and the graphical form. Therefore the successful engineer will be technically competent and versatile in all three forms of communication. A technically competent person who lacks ability in any one of these forms is severely handicapped. If ability in all three forms is lacking, no one will ever know how competent that person is!
The competent engineer should not be afraid of the possible of not succeeding in a presentation. In fact, occasional failure should be expected because failure or criticism seems to a company every really creative idea. There is a great deal to be learned from a failure, and the greatest gains are obtained by those willing to risk defeat. In the final analysis, the real failure would lie in deciding not to make the presentation at all. To communicate effectively, the fowling questions must be answered:
Dose the design really sever a human need?
Will it be competitive with existing products of rival companies?
Is it economical to produce?
Can it be readily maintained?
Will it sell and make a profit?
Only time will provide the true answers to the preceding question, but the product should be design, manufactured and marketed only with initial affirmative answer. The design engineer also must communicate the finalized design to manufacturing through the use of detail and assembly drawings.
Quite often, a problem will occur during the manufacturing cycle. It may be that a change is required in the dimensioning or tolerance of a part so that it can be more readily produced. This fall in the category of engineering changes which must be approved by the design engineer so that the product function will not be adversely affected. In other case, a deficiency in the design may appear during assembly or testing just prior to shipping. These realities simply bear out the fact that design is a living process. There is always a better way to do it and the designer should constantly strive towards findings that better way.
The primary tooling concerns when machining aluminum are: minimizing the tendency of aluminum to stick to the tool cutting edges; ensuring there is good chip evacuation form the cutting edge; and ensuring the core strength of the tools is sufficient to withstand the cutting forces without breaking.
Technological developments such as the Makino MAG-Series machines have made tooling vendors rethink the any state-of-the-art machine technology. It is vital to apply the right tooling and programming concepts.
Materials coatings and geometry are the three elements in tool design that interrelate to minimize these concerns. If these three elements do not work together, successful high-speed milling is not possible. It is imperative to understand all three of these elements in order to be successful in the high-speed machining of aluminum.
Minimize Built-Up Eagled. The surface peaks and valleys” created by this process causes aluminum to rapidly collect in the valleys on the tool. In addition, the PVD coating is chemically reactive to the aluminum due to its metallic crystal and ionic crystal features. A TiAIN coating actually contains aluminum, which easily bonds with a cutting surface of the same material. The surface roughness and chemical reactivity attributes will cause the tool and work piece to stick together, thus creating the built-up edge.
In testing performed by OSG Tap and Die, it was discovered that when machining aluminum at very high speeds, the performance of an uncoated coarse-grained carbide tool was superior to that of one coated with TiN, Ticn, TiAIN, or ALTiN. This testing does not mean that all tool coatings will reduce the tool performance. The diamond and DLC coatings result in a very smooth chemically inert surface. These coatings have been found to significantly improve tool life when cutting aluminum materials.
The diamond coatings were found to be the best performing coatings, but there is a considerable cost related to this type of coating. The DLC coatings provide the best cost for performance value, adding about 20%-25%to the total tool cost. But, this coating extends the tool life significantly as compared to an uncoated coarse-grained carbide tool.
Geometry
The rule of thumb for high-speed aluminum machining tooling designs is to maximize space for chip evacuation. This is because aluminum is a very soft material, and the federate is usually increased which creates more and bigger chips.
The Makino MAG-Series aerospace milling machines, such as the MAG4, require an additional consideration for tool geometry-tool strength. The MAG-Series machines with their powerful 80-hp spindles will snap the tools if they are not designed with sufficient core strength.
In general, sharp cutting edges should always be used to avoid aluminum elongation. A sharp cutting edge will create high shearing and also high surface clearance, creating a better surface finish and finish and minimizing chatter or surface vibration. The issue is that it is possible to achieve a sharper cutting edge with the fine-grained carbide material than the coarse grained material. But due to aluminum adherence to the fine-grained material, it is not possible to maintain that edge for very long.
Coarse compromise
The coarse grained material appears to be the best compromise. It is a strong material that can have a reasonable cutting edge. Test results show it is able to achieve a very long tool life with good surface finish. The maintenance of the cutting edge is improved using an oil mist coolant through the tool. Misting gradually cools down the tools, eliminating thermal shock problems.
The helix angle is an additional tool geometry consideration. Traditionally when machining aluminum a fool with a high helix angle has been used. A high helix angle lifts the chip away from the pa
When machining aluminum, one of the major failure modes of cutting tools the material being machined adheres to the tool cutting edge. This condition rapidly degrades the cutting ability of the tool. The built-up edge that is generated by the adhering aluminum dulls the tool so it can no longer cut through the material. Tool material selection and tool coating selection are the two primary techniques used by tool designers to reduce occurrence of the built-up edge.
The sub-micron grain carbide material requires a high cobalt concentration to achieve the fine grain structure and the material’s strength properties. Cobalt reacts with aluminum at elevated temperatures, which causes the aluminum to chemically bond to the exposed cobalt of the tool material. Once the aluminum starts to adhere to the tool, it quickly forms a built-up edge on the tool rendering it ineffective.
The secret is to find the right balance of cobalt to provide adequate material strength, while minimizing the exposed cobalt in the tools for aluminum adherence during the cutting process. This balance is achieved using coarse-grained carbide that provides a tool of sufficient hardness so as to not dull quickly when machining aluminum while minimizing adherence.
Tool coatings
The second tool design element that must be considered when trying to minimize the built-up edge is the tool coating. Tool coating choices include TiN, TiAIN, AITiN, chrome nitrides, zirconium nitrides, diamond, and diamond-like coatings(DLC). With so many choices, aerospace milling shops need to know which one works best in an aluminum high-speed machining application.
The Physical Vapor Deposition (PVD) coating application process on TiN, TiCN, TiAIN, and AITiN tools makes them unsuitable for an aluminum application. The PVD coating process creates two modes for aluminum to bond to the tools ：the surface roughness and the chemical reactivity between the aluminum and the tool coating.
The PVD process results in surface that is rougher that the substrate material to which it is app rt more quickly, but increases the friction and heat generated as result of the cutting action. A high helix angle is typically used on a tool with a higher number of flutes to quickly evacuate the chip from the part.
When machining aluminum at very high speeds the heat created by the increased friction may cause the chips to weld to the tool. In addition, a cutting surface with a high helix angle will chip more rapidly that a tool with a low helix angle. A tool design that utilizes only two flutes enables both a low helix angle and sufficient chip evacuation area. This is the approach that has proven to be the most successful in extensive testing performed by OSG when developing the new tooling line, the MAX AL.
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