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編號(hào)
無(wú)錫太湖學(xué)院
畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)(論文)
相關(guān)資料
題目:內(nèi)燃機(jī)后油封蓋機(jī)械加工工藝規(guī)程
設(shè)計(jì)及系列夾具設(shè)計(jì)
信機(jī) 系 機(jī)械工程及自動(dòng)化專業(yè)
學(xué) 號(hào): 0923169
學(xué)生姓名: 何巍巍
指導(dǎo)教師: 張大駿(職稱:高級(jí)工程師)
(職稱: )
2013年5月25日
目 錄
一、畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)(論文)開題報(bào)告
二、畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)(論文)外文資料翻譯及原文
三、學(xué)生“畢業(yè)論文(論文)計(jì)劃、進(jìn)度、檢查及落實(shí)表”
四、實(shí)習(xí)鑒定表
無(wú)錫太湖學(xué)院
畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)(論文)
開題報(bào)告
題目:內(nèi)燃機(jī)后油封蓋機(jī)械加工工藝規(guī)程
設(shè)計(jì)及系列夾具設(shè)計(jì)
信機(jī) 系 機(jī)械工程及自動(dòng)化 專業(yè)
學(xué) 號(hào): 0923169
學(xué)生姓名: 何巍巍
指導(dǎo)教師: 張大駿(職稱:高級(jí)工程師 )
(職稱: )
2012年11月25日
課題來源
本課題是廣西玉林柴油機(jī)廠提供圖紙委托無(wú)錫市宏業(yè)機(jī)電配件廠加工的柴油機(jī)零件,無(wú)錫市宏業(yè)機(jī)電配件廠提供相關(guān)資料,此種柴油機(jī)在載重汽車及客車上廣泛使用。
科學(xué)依據(jù)(包括課題的科學(xué)意義;國(guó)內(nèi)外研究概況、水平和發(fā)展趨勢(shì);應(yīng)用前景等)
1、工藝是機(jī)械產(chǎn)品設(shè)計(jì)制造過程中十分重要的一個(gè)環(huán)節(jié),其水平與質(zhì)量直接影響到產(chǎn)品的最終制造質(zhì)量及成本運(yùn)行。
2、加工技術(shù)正向高度信息化、自動(dòng)化、智能化的方向發(fā)展,各種現(xiàn)代的加工方法也不斷地創(chuàng)造和完善,如快速成型技術(shù)、激光加工、電加工和射流加工等已相當(dāng)廣泛的應(yīng)用到加工中去,而這些使工藝設(shè)計(jì)也帶來巨大的進(jìn)步。
3、作為機(jī)械專業(yè)的本科畢業(yè)生采用此類課題可以培養(yǎng)學(xué)生認(rèn)識(shí)機(jī)械加工生產(chǎn)準(zhǔn)備工作是怎樣一個(gè)過程,可以受到理論與實(shí)踐相結(jié)合的鍛煉。
研究?jī)?nèi)容
1、機(jī)械加工工藝規(guī)程的編制,結(jié)合具體工廠的條件和發(fā)展前景進(jìn)行考慮。
2、同樣結(jié)合具體工廠的現(xiàn)有生產(chǎn)條件和發(fā)展前景設(shè)計(jì)專用(不少于三副)
擬采取的研究方法、技術(shù)路線、實(shí)驗(yàn)方案及可行性分析
采用組織分析零件的具體結(jié)構(gòu),加工精度要求,表面粗糙度要求,制定出初步的加工方案,然后組織學(xué)生下工廠參觀、實(shí)習(xí)、實(shí)地了解工廠出現(xiàn)的生產(chǎn)條件,發(fā)展展望及具體的生產(chǎn)水平。然后在此基礎(chǔ)上編制工藝規(guī)程,填寫工藝文件,設(shè)計(jì)專用夾具,待初步完成后,再回工廠征集意見,加以改進(jìn),定稿。
研究計(jì)劃及預(yù)期成果
研究計(jì)劃:
2012年11月12日-2012年12月2日:按照任務(wù)書要求查閱論文相關(guān)參考資料,填寫畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)開題報(bào)告書。
2012年12月3日-2013年3月1日:參加實(shí)訓(xùn)及填寫畢業(yè)實(shí)習(xí)報(bào)告。
2013年3月4日-2013年3月8日:學(xué)習(xí)并翻譯一篇與畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)相關(guān)的英文材料。
2013年3月11日-2013年3月22日:工藝路線及夾具方案的確定。
2013年3月25日-2013年4月12日:夾具圖及Solidworks模組圖的繪制。
2013年4月15日-2013年4月19日:工藝規(guī)程設(shè)計(jì)和工藝過程卡、工序卡設(shè)計(jì)。
2013年4月22日-2013年5月10日:工藝計(jì)算和夾具設(shè)計(jì)。
2013年5月13日-2013年5月25日:畢業(yè)論文撰寫和修改工作。
預(yù)期成果:
工藝規(guī)程、工藝卡片、工序卡片
夾具總圖及主要的零件圖、Solidworks模組圖
設(shè)計(jì)說明書、相關(guān)資料
特色或創(chuàng)新之處
工藝規(guī)程可以適用于一般中小型工廠的普通通用機(jī)床,也能改進(jìn)后用于專用機(jī)床,或加工中心,適用于范圍較廣。
已具備的條件和尚需解決的問題
現(xiàn)有廣西玉柴機(jī)器集團(tuán)有限公司生產(chǎn)內(nèi)燃機(jī)后油封蓋的零件圖樣,委托加工工廠的現(xiàn)有生產(chǎn)條件及技術(shù)狀況,特別是已有的生產(chǎn)經(jīng)驗(yàn)。
目前缺少設(shè)計(jì)手冊(cè)、資料等,對(duì)檢測(cè)條件也不夠清楚其它資料也缺乏。
指導(dǎo)教師意見
該生已查閱大量國(guó)內(nèi)外參考資料,已對(duì)課題有了一定了解,計(jì)劃詳細(xì)可行,
同意開題。
指導(dǎo)教師簽名:
2012年 11月 25日
教研室(學(xué)科組、研究所)意見
教研室主任簽名:
年 月 日
系意見
主管領(lǐng)導(dǎo)簽名:
年 月 日
無(wú)錫太湖學(xué)院
畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)(論文)外文資料翻譯
信機(jī) 系 機(jī)械工程及自動(dòng)化 專業(yè)
院 (系): 信 機(jī) 系
專 業(yè): 機(jī)械工程及自動(dòng)化
班 級(jí): 機(jī)械94班
姓 名: 何巍巍
學(xué) 號(hào): 0923169
外文出處: 《Manufacturing Engineering
and Technology—Machining》
附 件: 1.譯文;2.原文;3.評(píng)分表
2013年5月25日
英文原文
MACHINABILITY
The machinability of a material usually defined in terms of four factors:
1、 Surface finish and integrity of the machined part;
2、 Tool life obtained;
3、 Force and power requirements;
4、 Chip control.
Thus, good machinability good surface finish and integrity, long tool life, and low force And power requirements. As for chip control, long and thin (stringy) cured chips, if not broken up, can severely interfere with the cutting operation by becoming entangled in the cutting zone.
Because of the complex nature of cutting operations, it is difficult to establish relationships that quantitatively define the machinability of a material. In manufacturing plants, tool life and surface roughness are generally considered to be the most important factors in machinability. Although not used much any more, approximate machinability ratings are available in the example below.
Machinability Of Steels
Because steels are among the most important engineering materials, their machinability has been studied extensively. The machinability of steels has been mainly improved by adding lead and sulfur to obtain so-called free-machining steels.
Resulfurized and Rephosphorized steels. Sulfur in steels forms manganese sulfide inclusions (second-phase particles), which act as stress raisers in the primary shear zone. As a result, the chips produced break up easily and are small; this improves machinability. The size, shape, distribution, and concentration of these inclusions significantly influence machinability. Elements such as tellurium and selenium, which are both chemically similar to sulfur, act as inclusion modifiers in resulfurized steels.
Phosphorus in steels has two major effects. It strengthens the ferrite, causing increased hardness. Harder steels result in better chip formation and surface finish. Note that soft steels can be difficult to machine, with built-up edge formation and poor surface finish. The second effect is that increased hardness causes the formation of short chips instead of continuous stringy ones, thereby improving machinability.
Leaded Steels. A high percentage of lead in steels solidifies at the tip of manganese sulfide inclusions. In non-resulfurized grades of steel, lead takes the form of dispersed fine particles. Lead is insoluble in iron, copper, and aluminum and their alloys. Because of its low shear strength, therefore, lead acts as a solid lubricant (Section 32.11) and is smeared over the tool-chip interface during cutting. This behavior has been verified by the presence of high concentrations of lead on the tool-side face of chips when machining leaded steels.
When the temperature is sufficiently high-for instance, at high cutting speeds and feeds (Section 20.6)—the lead melts directly in front of the tool, acting as a liquid lubricant. In addition to this effect, lead lowers the shear stress in the primary shear zone, reducing cutting forces and power consumption. Lead can be used in every grade of steel, such as 10xx, 11xx, 12xx, 41xx, etc. Leaded steels are identified by the letter L between the second and third numerals (for example, 10L45). (Note that in stainless steels, similar use of the letter L means “l(fā)ow carbon,” a condition that improves their corrosion resistance.)
However, because lead is a well-known toxin and a pollutant, there are serious environmental concerns about its use in steels (estimated at 4500 tons of lead consumption every year in the production of steels). Consequently, there is a continuing trend toward eliminating the use of lead in steels (lead-free steels). Bismuth and tin are now being investigated as possible substitutes for lead in steels.
Calcium-Deoxidized Steels. An important development is calcium-deoxidized steels, in which oxide flakes of calcium silicates (CaSo) are formed. These flakes, in turn, reduce the strength of the secondary shear zone, decreasing tool-chip interface and wear. Temperature is correspondingly reduced. Consequently, these steels produce less crater wear, especially at high cutting speeds.
Stainless Steels. Austenitic (300 series) steels are generally difficult to machine. Chatter can be s problem, necessitating machine tools with high stiffness. However, ferritic stainless steels (also 300 series) have good machinability. Martensitic (400 series) steels are abrasive, tend to form a built-up edge, and require tool materials with high hot hardness and crater-wear resistance. Precipitation-hardening stainless steels are strong and abrasive, requiring hard and abrasion-resistant tool materials.
The Effects of Other Elements in Steels on Machinability. The presence of aluminum and silicon in steels is always harmful because these elements combine with oxygen to form aluminum oxide and silicates, which are hard and abrasive. These compounds increase tool wear and reduce machinability. It is essential to produce and use clean steels.
Carbon and manganese have various effects on the machinability of steels, depending on their composition. Plain low-carbon steels (less than 0.15% C) can produce poor surface finish by forming a built-up edge. Cast steels are more abrasive, although their machinability is similar to that of wrought steels. Tool and die steels are very difficult to machine and usually require annealing prior to machining. Machinability of most steels is improved by cold working, which hardens the material and reduces the tendency for built-up edge formation.
Other alloying elements, such as nickel, chromium, molybdenum, and vanadium, which improve the properties of steels, generally reduce machinability. The effect of boron is negligible. Gaseous elements such as hydrogen and nitrogen can have particularly detrimental effects on the properties of steel. Oxygen has been shown to have a strong effect on the aspect ratio of the manganese sulfide inclusions; the higher the oxygen content, the lower the aspect ratio and the higher the machinability.
In selecting various elements to improve machinability, we should consider the possible detrimental effects of these elements on the properties and strength of the machined part in service. At elevated temperatures, for example, lead causes embrittlement of steels (liquid-metal embrittlement, hot shortness), although at room temperature it has no effect on mechanical properties.
Sulfur can severely reduce the hot workability of steels, because of the formation of iron sulfide, unless sufficient manganese is present to prevent such formation. At room temperature, the mechanical properties of resulfurized steels depend on the orientation of the deformed manganese sulfide inclusions (anisotropy). Rephosphorized steels are significantly less ductile, and are produced solely to improve machinability.
Machinability of Various Other Metals
Aluminum is generally very easy to machine, although the softer grades tend to form a built-up edge, resulting in poor surface finish. High cutting speeds, high rake angles, and high relief angles are recommended. Wrought aluminum alloys with high silicon content and cast aluminum alloys may be abrasive; they require harder tool materials. Dimensional tolerance control may be a problem in machining aluminum, since it has a high thermal coefficient of expansion and a relatively low elastic modulus.
Beryllium is similar to cast irons. Because it is more abrasive and toxic, though, it requires machining in a controlled environment.
Cast gray irons are generally machinable but are. Free carbides in castings reduce their machinability and cause tool chipping or fracture, necessitating tools with high toughness. Nodular and malleable irons are machinable with hard tool materials.
Cobalt-based alloys are abrasive and highly work-hardening. They require sharp, abrasion-resistant tool materials and low feeds and speeds.
Wrought copper can be difficult to machine because of built-up edge formation, although cast copper alloys are easy to machine. Brasses are easy to machine, especially with the addition pf lead (leaded free-machining brass). Bronzes are more difficult to machine than brass.
Magnesium is very easy to machine, with good surface finish and prolonged tool life. However care should be exercised because of its high rate of oxidation and the danger of fire (the element is pyrophoric).
Molybdenum is ductile and work-hardening, so it can produce poor surface finish. Sharp tools are necessary.
Nickel-based alloys are work-hardening, abrasive, and strong at high temperatures. Their machinability is similar to that of stainless steels.
Tantalum is very work-hardening, ductile, and soft. It produces a poor surface finish; tool wear is high.
Titanium and its alloys have poor thermal conductivity (indeed, the lowest of all metals), causing significant temperature rise and built-up edge; they can be difficult to machine.
Tungsten is brittle, strong, and very abrasive, so its machinability is low, although it greatly improves at elevated temperatures.
Zirconium has good machinability. It requires a coolant-type cutting fluid, however, because of the explosion and fire.
Machinability of Various Materials
Graphite is abrasive; it requires hard, abrasion-resistant, sharp tools.
Thermoplastics generally have low thermal conductivity, low elastic modulus, and low softening temperature. Consequently, machining them requires tools with positive rake angles (to reduce cutting forces), large relief angles, small depths of cut and feed, relatively high speeds, and
proper support of the workpiece. Tools should be sharp.
External cooling of the cutting zone may be necessary to keep the chips from becoming “gummy” and sticking to the tools. Cooling can usually be achieved with a jet of air, vapor mist, or water-soluble oils. Residual stresses may develop during machining. To relieve these stresses, machined parts can be annealed for a period of time at temperatures ranging from to (to), and then cooled slowly and uniformly to room temperature.
Thermosetting plastics are brittle and sensitive to thermal gradients during cutting. Their machinability is generally similar to that of thermoplastics.
Because of the fibers present, reinforced plastics are very abrasive and are difficult to machine. Fiber tearing, pulling, and edge delamination are significant problems; they can lead to severe reduction in the load-carrying capacity of the component. Furthermore, machining of these materials requires careful removal of machining debris to avoid contact with and inhaling of the fibers.
The machinability of ceramics has improved steadily with the development of nanoceramics and with the selection of appropriate processing parameters, such as ductile-regime cutting.
Metal-matrix and ceramic-matrix composites can be difficult to machine, depending on the properties of the individual components, i.e., reinforcing or whiskers, as well as the matrix material.
Thermally Assisted Machining
Metals and alloys that are difficult to machine at room temperature can be machined more easily at elevated temperatures. In thermally assisted machining (hot machining), the source of heat—a torch, induction coil, high-energy beam (such as laser or electron beam), or plasma arc—is forces, (b) increased tool life, (c) use of inexpensive cutting-tool materials, (d) higher material-removal rates, and (e) reduced tendency for vibration and chatter.
It may be difficult to heat and maintain a uniform temperature distribution within the workpiece. Also, the original microstructure of the workpiece may be adversely affected by elevated temperatures. Most applications of hot machining are in the turning of high-strength metals and alloys, although experiments are in progress to machine ceramics such as silicon nitride.
SUMMARY
Machinability is usually defined in terms of surface finish, tool life, force and power requirements, and chip control. Machinability of materials depends not only on their intrinsic properties and microstructure, but also on proper selection and control of process variables.
中文譯文
可機(jī)加工性
一種材料的可機(jī)加工性通常以四種因素的方式定義:
1、 分的表面光潔性和表面完整性。
2、刀具的壽命。
3、切削力和功率的需求。
4、切屑控制。
以這種方式,好的可機(jī)加工性指的是好的表面光潔性和完整性,長(zhǎng)的刀具壽命,低的切削力和功率需求。關(guān)于切屑控制,細(xì)長(zhǎng)的卷曲切屑,如果沒有被切割成小片,以在切屑區(qū)變的混亂,纏在一起的方式能夠嚴(yán)重的介入剪切工序。
因?yàn)榧羟泄ば虻膹?fù)雜屬性,所以很難建立定量地釋義材料的可機(jī)加工性的關(guān)系。在制造廠里,刀具壽命和表面粗糙度通常被認(rèn)為是可機(jī)加工性中最重要的因素。盡管已不再大量的被使用,近乎準(zhǔn)確的機(jī)加工率在以下的例子中能夠被看到。
鋼的可機(jī)加工性
因?yàn)殇撌亲钪匾墓こ滩牧现?,所以他們的可機(jī)加工性已經(jīng)被廣泛地研究過。通過宗教鉛和硫磺,鋼的可機(jī)加工性已經(jīng)大大地提高了。從而得到了所謂的易切削鋼。
二次硫化鋼和二次磷化鋼 硫在鋼中形成硫化錳夾雜物(第二相粒子),這些夾雜物在第一剪切區(qū)引起應(yīng)力。其結(jié)果是使切屑容易斷開而變小,從而改善了可加工性。這些夾雜物的大小、形狀、分布和集中程度顯著的影響可加工性。化學(xué)元素如碲和硒,其化學(xué)性質(zhì)與硫類似,在二次硫化鋼中起夾雜物改性作用。
鋼中的磷有兩個(gè)主要的影響。它加強(qiáng)鐵素體,增加硬度。越硬的鋼,形成更好的切屑形成和表面光潔性。需要注意的是軟鋼不適合用于有積屑瘤形成和很差的表面光潔性的機(jī)器。第二個(gè)影響是增加的硬度引起短切屑而不是不斷的細(xì)長(zhǎng)的切屑的形成,因此提高可加工性。
含鉛的鋼 鋼中高含量的鉛在硫化錳夾雜物尖端析出。在非二次硫化鋼中,鉛呈細(xì)小而分散的顆粒。鉛在鐵、銅、鋁和它們的合金中是不能溶解的。因?yàn)樗牡涂辜魪?qiáng)度。因此,鉛充當(dāng)固體潤(rùn)滑劑并且在切削時(shí),被涂在刀具和切屑的接口處。這一特性已經(jīng)被在機(jī)加工鉛鋼時(shí),在切屑的刀具面表面有高濃度的鉛的存在所證實(shí)。
當(dāng)溫度足夠高時(shí)—例如,在高的切削速度和進(jìn)刀速度下—鉛在刀具前直接熔化,并且充當(dāng)液體潤(rùn)滑劑。除了這個(gè)作用,鉛降低第一剪切區(qū)中的剪應(yīng)力,減小切削力和功率消耗。鉛能用于各種鋼號(hào),例如10XX,11XX,12XX,41XX等等。鉛鋼被第二和第三數(shù)碼中的字母L所識(shí)別(例如,10L45)。(需要注意的是在不銹鋼中,字母L的相同用法指的是低碳,提高它們的耐蝕性的條件)。
然而,因?yàn)殂U是有名的毒素和污染物,因此在鋼的使用中存在著嚴(yán)重的環(huán)境隱患(在鋼產(chǎn)品中每年大約有4500噸的鉛消耗)。結(jié)果,對(duì)于估算鋼中含鉛量的使用存在一個(gè)持續(xù)的趨勢(shì)。鉍和錫現(xiàn)正作為鋼中的鉛最可能的替代物而被人們所研究。
脫氧鈣鋼 一個(gè)重要的發(fā)展是脫氧鈣鋼,在脫氧鈣鋼中矽酸鈣鹽中的氧化物片的形成。這些片狀,依次減小第二剪切區(qū)中的力量,降低刀具和切屑接口處的摩擦和磨損。溫度也相應(yīng)地降低。結(jié)果,這些鋼產(chǎn)生更小的月牙洼磨損,特別是在高切削速度時(shí)更是如此。
不銹鋼 奧氏體鋼通常很難機(jī)加工。振動(dòng)能成為一個(gè)問題,需要有高硬度的機(jī)床。然而,鐵素體不銹鋼有很好的可機(jī)加工性。馬氏體鋼易磨蝕,易于形成積屑瘤,并且要求刀具材料有高的熱硬度和耐月牙洼磨損性。經(jīng)沉淀硬化的不銹鋼強(qiáng)度高、磨蝕性強(qiáng),因此要求刀具材料硬而耐磨。
鋼中其它元素在可機(jī)加工性方面的影響 鋼中鋁和矽的存在總是有害的,因?yàn)檫@些元素結(jié)合氧會(huì)生成氧化鋁和矽酸鹽,而氧化鋁和矽酸鹽硬且具有磨蝕性。這些化合物增加刀具磨損,降低可機(jī)加工性。因此生產(chǎn)和使用凈化鋼非常必要。
根據(jù)它們的構(gòu)成,碳和錳鋼在鋼的可機(jī)加工性方面有不同的影響。低碳素鋼(少于0.15%的碳)通過形成一個(gè)積屑瘤能生成很差的表面光潔性。盡管鑄鋼的可機(jī)加工性和鍛鋼的大致相同,但鑄鋼具有更大的磨蝕性。刀具和模具鋼很難用于機(jī)加工,他們通常再煅燒后再機(jī)加工。大多數(shù)鋼的可機(jī)加工性在冷加工后都有所提高,冷加工能使材料變硬并且減少積屑瘤的形成。
其它合金元素,例如鎳、鉻、鉗和釩,能提高鋼的特性,減小可機(jī)加工性。硼的影響可以忽視。氣態(tài)元素比如氫和氮在鋼的特性方面能有特別的有害影響。氧已經(jīng)被證明了在硫化錳夾雜物的縱橫比方面有很強(qiáng)的影響。越高的含氧量,就產(chǎn)生越低的縱橫比和越高的可機(jī)加工性。
選擇各種元素以改善可加工性,我們應(yīng)該考慮到這些元素對(duì)已加工零件在使用中的性能和強(qiáng)度的不利影響。例如,當(dāng)溫度升高時(shí),鋁會(huì)使鋼變脆(液體—金屬脆化,熱脆化),盡管其在室溫下對(duì)力學(xué)性能沒有影響。
因?yàn)榱蚧F的構(gòu)成,硫能嚴(yán)重的減少鋼的熱加工性,除非有足夠的錳來防止這種結(jié)構(gòu)的形成。在室溫下,二次磷化鋼的機(jī)械性能依賴于變形的硫化錳夾雜物的定位(各向異性)。二次磷化鋼具有更小的延展性,被單獨(dú)生成來提高機(jī)加工性。
其它不同金屬的機(jī)加工性
盡管越軟的品種易于生成積屑瘤,但鋁通常很容易被機(jī)加工,導(dǎo)致了很差的表面光潔性。高的切削速度,高的前角和高的后角都被推薦了。有高含量的矽的鍛鋁合金鑄鋁合金也許具有磨蝕性,它們要求更硬的刀具材料。尺寸公差控制也許在機(jī)加工鋁時(shí)會(huì)成為一個(gè)問題,因?yàn)樗信蛎浀母邔?dǎo)熱系數(shù)和相對(duì)低的彈性模數(shù)。
鋁的重量輕和耐腐蝕,是其性能的兩大突出特點(diǎn)。純鋁的密度約為2.7g/cm3,僅為鐵、銅密度的三分之一。無(wú)論是固體鋁或熔融鋁,其密度均隨著純度的提高而降低;同等純度的熔融鋁的密度,則隨溫度的提高而降低。鋁對(duì)自然界的水(含海水)、大氣中的各種元素,以及油料與各種化學(xué)物品,都良好的耐蝕性。這是由于鋁的化學(xué)性質(zhì)及其活潑,其最特殊的性能是具有同氧(特別是空氣中的氧)強(qiáng)烈結(jié)合的傾向,鋁在空氣中被其表面生成一層厚度約為2x10-4mm的致密氧化膜(三氧化二鋁)所覆蓋,防止了鋁的繼續(xù)氧化,從而使鋁具有良好的耐蝕性。
鋁合金能承受壓力加工。可加工成各種形態(tài)、規(guī)格的鋁合金材。主要用于制造航空器材、建筑用門窗等。 形變鋁合金又分為不可熱處理強(qiáng)化型鋁合金和可熱處理強(qiáng)化型鋁合金。不可熱處理強(qiáng)化型不能通過熱處理來提高機(jī)械性能,只能通過冷加工變形來實(shí)現(xiàn)強(qiáng)化,它主要包括高純鋁、工業(yè)高純鋁、工業(yè)純鋁以及防銹鋁等??蔁崽幚韽?qiáng)化型鋁合金可以通過淬火和時(shí)效等熱處理手段來提高機(jī)械性能,它可分為硬鋁、鍛鋁、超硬鋁和特殊鋁合金等。
純鋁的力學(xué)性能不高,不適宜制作承受較大載荷的結(jié)構(gòu)零件。為了提高鋁的力學(xué)性能在純鋁中加入某些合金元素制成合金,常加入的合金元素有銅、鎂、鉻、鋅、硅、錳、鎳、鈷、鈦及鍶等,稀土元素在某些合金中加入。這些合金元素加入后通過以下幾個(gè)方面對(duì)鋁進(jìn)行強(qiáng)化。
鋁合金熱處理后可以得到過飽和的鋁基固溶體。這種過飽和鋁基固溶體在室溫或加熱到某一溫度時(shí),其強(qiáng)度和硬度隨時(shí)間和延長(zhǎng)而增高,但塑性降低。這個(gè)過程就稱時(shí)效。時(shí)效過程中使合金的強(qiáng)度、硬度增高的現(xiàn)象稱為時(shí)效強(qiáng)化或時(shí)效硬化。
當(dāng)鋁中加入的合金元素含水量超過其極限溶解度時(shí),淬火加熱時(shí)便有一部分不能溶入固溶體的第二相出現(xiàn)稱之為過剩相。在鋁合金中過剩相多為硬而脆的金屬間化合物。它們?cè)诤辖鹬衅鹱璧K滑移和位錯(cuò)運(yùn)動(dòng)的作用,使強(qiáng)度、硬度提高,而塑性、韌性降低。合金中過剩相的數(shù)量愈多,其強(qiáng)化效果愈好,但過剩相多時(shí),由于合金變脆而導(dǎo)致強(qiáng)度、塑性降低。
在鋁合中添加微量元素細(xì)化組織是提高鋁合金力學(xué)性能的另一種重要手段。
變形鋁合金中添加微量鈦、鋯、鈹、鍶以及稀土元素,它們能形成難熔化合物,在合金結(jié)晶時(shí)作為非自發(fā)晶核,起細(xì)化晶粒作用,提高合金的強(qiáng)度和塑性。
鑄造鋁合金中常加入微量元素作變質(zhì)處理來細(xì)化合金組織,提高強(qiáng)度和塑性。變質(zhì)處理對(duì)不能熱處理強(qiáng)化或強(qiáng)化效果不大的鑄造鋁合金和變形鋁合金具有特別重要的意義。比如在鋁硅鑄造鋁合金中加入微量鈉或鈉鹽或銻作變質(zhì)劑進(jìn)行變質(zhì)處理,細(xì)化組織可以顯著提高塑性和強(qiáng)度。同樣在鑄造鋁合金中加入少量錳、鉻、鈷等元素能使雜質(zhì)鐵形成的板塊狀或針狀化合物AlFeSi細(xì)化,提高塑性,加入微量鍶可消除或減少初晶硅,并使共晶硅細(xì)化;粒子園整度提高。
冷變形強(qiáng)化亦稱冷作硬化,即金屬材料在再結(jié)晶溫度以下冷變形,冷變形時(shí),金屬內(nèi)部位錯(cuò)密度增大,且相互纏結(jié)并形成胞狀結(jié)構(gòu),阻礙位錯(cuò)運(yùn)動(dòng)。變形度越大位錯(cuò)纏結(jié)越嚴(yán)重,變形抗力越大,強(qiáng)度越高。冷變形后強(qiáng)化的程度隨變形度、變形溫度及材料本身的性質(zhì)而不同。同一材料在同一溫度下冷變形時(shí),變形度越大則強(qiáng)度越高。塑性隨變形程度的增加而降低。
壓力鑄造簡(jiǎn)稱壓鑄,是一種將熔融合金液倒入壓室內(nèi),以高速充填鋼制模具的型腔,并使合金液在壓力下凝固而形成鑄件的鑄造方法。壓鑄區(qū)別于其它鑄造方法的主要特點(diǎn)是高壓和高速。
(1)金屬液是在壓力下填充型腔的,并在更高的壓力下結(jié)晶凝固,常見的壓力為15—100MPa。
(2)金屬液以高速充填型腔,通常在10—50米/秒,有的還可超過80米/秒,(通過內(nèi)澆口導(dǎo)入型腔的線速度—內(nèi)澆口速度),因此金屬液的充型時(shí)間極短,約0.01—0.2秒(須視鑄件的大小而不同)內(nèi)即可填滿型腔。壓鑄機(jī)、壓鑄合金與壓鑄模具是壓鑄生產(chǎn)的三大要素,缺一不可。所謂壓鑄工藝就是將這三大要素有機(jī)地加以綜合運(yùn)用,使能穩(wěn)定地有節(jié)奏地和高效地生產(chǎn)出外觀、內(nèi)在質(zhì)量好的、尺寸符合圖樣或協(xié)議規(guī)定要求的合格鑄件,甚至優(yōu)質(zhì)鑄件。
壓鑄的流動(dòng)性
流動(dòng)性是指合金液體充填鑄型的能力。流動(dòng)性的大小決定合金能否鑄造復(fù)雜的鑄件。在鋁合金中共晶合金的流動(dòng)性最好。
影響流動(dòng)性的因素很多,主要是成分、溫度以及合金液體中存在金屬氧化物、金屬化合物及其他污染物的固相顆粒,但外在的根本因素為澆注溫度及澆注壓力(俗稱澆注壓頭)的高低。
實(shí)際生產(chǎn)中,在合金已確定的情況下,除了強(qiáng)化熔煉工藝(精煉與除渣)外,還必須改善鑄型工藝性(砂模透氣性、金屬型模具排氣及溫度),并在不影響鑄件質(zhì)量的前提下提高澆注溫度,保證合金的流動(dòng)性。
鈹和鑄鐵相同。因?yàn)樗吣ノg性和毒性,盡管它要求在可控人工環(huán)境下進(jìn)行機(jī)加工。
灰鑄鐵普遍地可加工,但也有磨蝕性。鑄造無(wú)中的游離碳化物降低它們的可機(jī)加工性,引起刀具切屑或裂口。它需要具有強(qiáng)韌性的工具。具有堅(jiān)硬的刀具材料的球墨鑄鐵和韌性鐵是可加工的。
鈷基合金有磨蝕性且高度加工硬化的。它們要求尖的且具有耐蝕性的刀具材料并且有低的走刀和速度。
盡管鑄銅合金很容易機(jī)加工,但因?yàn)殄戙~的積屑瘤形成因而鍛銅很難機(jī)加工。黃銅很容易機(jī)加工,特別是有添加的鉛更容易。青銅比黃銅更難機(jī)加工。
鎂很容易機(jī)加工,鎂既有很好的表面光潔性和長(zhǎng)久的刀具壽命。然而,因?yàn)楦叩难趸俣群突鸱N的危險(xiǎn)(這種元素易燃),因此我們應(yīng)該特別小心使用它。
鉗易拉長(zhǎng)且加工硬化,因此它生成很差的表面光潔性。尖的刀具是很必要的。
鎳基合金加工硬化,具有磨蝕性,且在高溫下非常堅(jiān)硬。它的可機(jī)加工性和不銹鋼相同。
鉭非常的加工硬化,具有可延性且柔軟。它生成很差的表面光潔性且刀具磨損非常大。
鈦和它的合金導(dǎo)熱性(的確,是所有金屬中最低的),因此引起明顯的溫度升高和積屑瘤。它們是難機(jī)加工的。
鎢易脆,堅(jiān)硬,且具有磨蝕性,因此盡管它的性能在高溫下能大大提高,但它的機(jī)加工性仍很低。
鋯有很好的機(jī)加工性。然而,因?yàn)橛斜ê突鸱N的危險(xiǎn)性,它要求有一個(gè)冷卻性質(zhì)好的切削液。
各種材料的機(jī)加工性
石墨具有磨蝕性。它要求硬的、尖的,具有耐蝕性的刀具。
塑性塑料通常有低的導(dǎo)熱性,低的彈性模數(shù)和低的軟化溫度。因此,機(jī)加工熱塑性塑料要求有正前角的刀具(以此降低切削力),還要求有大的后角,小的切削和走刀深的,相對(duì)高的速度和工件的正確支承。刀具應(yīng)該很尖。
切削區(qū)的外部冷卻也許很必要,以此來防止切屑變的有黏性且粘在刀具上。有了空氣流,汽霧或水溶性油,通常就能實(shí)現(xiàn)冷卻。在機(jī)加工時(shí),殘余應(yīng)力也許能生成并發(fā)展。為了解除這些力,已機(jī)加工的部分要在()的溫度范圍內(nèi)冷卻一段時(shí)間,然而慢慢地?zé)o變化地冷卻到室溫。
熱固性塑料易脆,并且在切削時(shí)對(duì)熱梯度很敏感。它的機(jī)加工性和熱塑性塑料的相同。
因?yàn)槔w維的存在,加強(qiáng)塑料具有磨蝕性,且很難機(jī)加工。纖維的撕裂、拉出和邊界分層是非常嚴(yán)重的問題。它們能導(dǎo)致構(gòu)成要素的承載能力大大下降。而且,這些材料的機(jī)加工要求對(duì)加工殘片仔細(xì)切除,以此來避免接觸和吸進(jìn)纖維。
隨著納米陶瓷的發(fā)展和適當(dāng)?shù)膮?shù)處理的選擇,例如塑性切削,陶瓷器的可機(jī)加工性已大大地提高了。
金屬基復(fù)合材料和陶瓷基復(fù)合材料很能機(jī)加工,它們依賴于單獨(dú)的成分的特性,比如說增強(qiáng)纖維或金屬須和基體材料。
熱輔助加工
在室溫下很難機(jī)加工的金屬和合金在高溫下能更容易地機(jī)加工。在熱輔助加工時(shí)(高溫切削),熱源—一個(gè)火把,感應(yīng)線圈,高能束流(例如雷射或電子束),或等離子弧—被集中在切削刀具前的一塊區(qū)域內(nèi)。好處是:(a)低的切削力。(b)增加的刀具壽命。(c)便宜的切削刀具材料的使用。(d)更高的材料切