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APPENDIX A: AUDIOSCRIPTSUnit OneChapter 1Anthropology:The Evolution of Human EndeavorAnthropology: The Study of Human Beings and Their CreationsoA. Orientation Listening ScriptThe Greek word for man is anthropos and the word anthropologyhas been in the English language for centuries. But just what does theword mean? Literally anthropology means the study of man. How-ever, as British philosopher Alfred North Whitehead noted, It is a well-founded historical generalization that the last thing to be discovered inany science is what the science is really about. And as Paul Bohannan,renowned anthropologist, pointed out a number of years ago, Eachscience that deals with people has its own definitions of human. AnEconomist, he explains, defines a human as a choice-making animal.Philosophers define man as a rationalizing animal. . . . Anthropologyattempts to be all-inclusive-the study of human behavior in all placesand throughout time. It specializes in the description of humanistic, sci-entific, biological, historical, psychological, and social views of humans.To paraphrase Barbara Millers statement in her textbook, CulturalAnthropology, the popular impression of anthropology is basedmainlyon movies and television shows that depict anthropologists as adven-turers and heroes. Some do have adventures and discover treasures inEgyptian tombs and elsewhere, but mostly, their work is less glam-orous and involves repetitive and tedious activities. Until around themiddle of the nineteenth century, anthropology was a term used for allhumanists. My lecture today explains the fields and branches ofanthropology. Were going to begin by stating that anthropology is thestudy of human behavior in all places and at all times.Western civilization takes credit for the development of anthropol-ogy, which, as a matter of fact, was a relatively late science. EarlierGreek and Roman philosophers were more interested in speculatingabout the ideal society rather than describing those known to them.After the onset of the Age of Exploration, which included thediscovery of the Americas, as well as travel to other distant places, thestudy of non-Western people began in earnest. In modern day, anthro-pology is a recognized social science with two broad fields and severalbranches or subfields.The two broad fields are physical anthropology and culturalanthropology. Let me give you a brief description of each. Physicalanthropology is concerned with the development of man as a mammal.Related subjects are anatomy, biology, and paleontology. Physical an-thropologists study the evolution of the human species. One way theydo this is by the comparative analysis of fossils-preserved remnants132 APPENDIX Aof oncelliving creatures and living primates, which include humanbeings or Homo sapiens. Common fossils are shells, bones, and moldsor imprints. These are found buried in the earth or permanently frozenin glaciers. Living primates are analyzed in order to study the mechan-ics of evolution and genetic differences among human populations.Next lets talk about cultural anthropology. This field is the studyof learned behavior in human societies. Most cultural anthropologistslimit themselves to a few geographic areas, for example, MargaretMead in Samoa and New Guinea, and Clyde Kluckhohn with theNavajo Indians in the Southwestern United States. I should mentionthat Kluckbohns work Mirror for Man is considered one of the best in-troductions to anthropology. Cultural anthropology and the scientificstudy of human culture will be discussed in more detail in our nextlecture. The subfields of cultural anthropology are archaeology, linguis-tics, and ethnography.Archaeology is the study of different cultures through materialsources rather than direct interviews or observations of the groupunder study. One example of a famous archaeological site discoveredin the past century was King Tuts Tomb near Luxor, Egypt, in 1922.Linguistics, as you probably know, is the study of language as com-munication among humans. Culture is learned and transmittedprimarily through language.Ethnography is the systematic description of human societies,mostly based on firsthand fieldwork. Based on ethnographies, anthro-pologists provide ethnologies or explanations of the behavior of differ-ent peoples. A second subfield of ethnography is social anthropology.Social anthropology is concerned with people as social beings. Arelated subject is, of course, sociology.Let me also mention briefly psychological anthropology, whichdeals with human personality and feelings. These are greatly influ-enced by an individuals biological and mental characteristics, as wellas physical surroundings and personal experiences. Related subjects arepsychology and psychiatry.It is important to note that there are several universals commonamong all societies; for example, the basic similarities in human biol-ogy and the existence of two sexes. Another of these is education-either formal or informal or both. Education is necessary to provide theyoung with the skills and attitudes needed to carry on as adults.So, you might ask, what are the practical applications for such abroad field? The answer is that anthropology helps us plan the future andhelps us contribute to the solution of human problems. This newest areaof the study of man is applied anthropology. Formerly, anthropology waslimited to the academic field. Anthropologists were teachers or museumcurators. But for the past several decades large numbers of anthro grad-uates have been employed in fields such as urban planning and adminis-tration, health care, and international development. Most important isthat although anthropologists have taken up the task of documenting theprocesses and changes of cultures past and present, they also provide thenecessary insights into where the human species is heading.AUDIOSCRIPTS 133Chapter 1 Anthropology: The Study of Human Beings and Their CreationsoB. Listening and Notetaking ScriptThe Greek word for man is anthropos and the word anthropologyhas been in the English language for centuries. But just what does theword mean? Literally anthropology means the study of man. How-ever, as British philosopher Alfred NorthWhitehead noted, It is a well-founded historical generalization that the last thing to be discovered inany science is what the science is really about. And as Paul Bohannan,renowned anthropologist, pointed out a number of years ago, Eachscience that deals with people has its own definitions of human. AnEconomist, he explains, defines a human as a choice-making animal.Philosophers define man as a rationalizing animal. . Anthropology at-tempts to be all-inclusive-the study of human behavior in all placesand throughout time. Itspecializes in the description of humanistic, sci-entific, biological, historical, psychological, and social views of humans.Lets review some of the information you just heard to help youwith your notetaking. Check your notes and fill in any informationyou didn t have time to take down the first time you heard it. If youdidnt get a chance to write down all that you wanted to writedown, did you at least make some notations so that you couldreview the notes later and complete the missing information. Letssee. The lecturer began with the Greek word for man. Did you getthe spelling of anthropos! Its a-n-t-b-t-o-p-o-s. So what is the meaningof anthropology! Literally, it is the study of man. What was thename of the British philosopher! Did you get his full name! AlfredNorth Whitehead. What was his message about science! He said thelast thing to be discovered in any science is what it is really about.Is Paul Bohannan a physical or social anthropologist! Youre correctif you wrote social. Now lets return to the lecture.To paraphrase Barbara Millers statement in her textbook, CulturalAnthropology, the popular impression of anthropology is based mainlyon movies and television shows that depict anthropologists as adven-turers and heroes. Some do have adventures and discover treasures inEgyptian tombs and elsewhere, but mostly, their work is less glam-orous and involves repetitive and tedious activities. Until around themiddle of the nineteenth century, anthropology was a term used for allhumanists. My lecture today explains the fields and branches ofanthropology. Were going to begin by stating that anthropology is thestudy of human behavior in all places and at all times.Western civilization takes credit for the development of anthropol-ogy, which, as a matter of fact, was a relatively late science. EarlierGreek and Roman philosophers were more interested in speculatingabout the ideal society rather than describing those known to them.What year did Barbara Miller publish Cultural Anthropology?Was it 1899 or 1999! According to her, what is the impression ofanthropology based on! How are anthropologists depicted! Prior to134 APPENDIX Athe 1850s what was the term anthropology used for! What is thelecturers definition! Who takes credit for the development of an-thropology! What were the ancient philosophers interested in! Isthis information in your notes! Now lets continue.After the onset of the Age of Exploration, which included the dis -covery of the Americas, as wcll as travel to other distant places, thestudy of non-Western people began in earnest. In modern day, anthro-pology is a recognized social science with two broad fields and severalbranches or subfields.The two broad fields are physical anthropology and culturalanthropology. Let me give you a brief description of each. Physicalanthropology is concerned the development of man as a mammal.Related subjects are anatomy, biology, and paleontology. Physical an-thropologists study the evolution of the human species. One way theydo this is by the comparative analysis of fossils-preservcd remnantsof once-living creatures and living primates, which include humanbeings or Homo sapiens. Common fossils are shells, bones, and moldsor imprints. These arc found buried in the earth or permanently frozenin glaciers. Living primates are analyzed in order to study the mechan-ics of evolution and genetic differences among human populations.What was the period of travel and discovery ofnewplaces called!Did you write down the phrase: the Age ofExploration! Do you havethe descriptions of the two main branches of anthropology! What arethe related subjects of physical anthropology! What are fossils! Didyou take down three kinds that were mentioned! What was anotherword formolds! Where are fossils found! Check your notes.Next lets talk about cultural anthropology. This field is the study oflearned behavior in human societies. Most cultural anthropologists limitthemselves to a few geographic areas, for example, Margaret Mead inSamoa and New Guinea, and Clyde Kluckhohn with the Navajo Indiansin the Southwestern United States. I should mention that Kluckhohnswork Mirror for Man is considered one of the best introductions toanthropology. Cultural anthropology and the scientific study of humanculture will be discussed in more detail in our next lecture. The subfieldsof cultural anthropology are archaeology, linguistics, and ethnography.Archaeology is the study of different cultures through materialsources rather than direct interviews or observations of the groupunder study. One example of a famous archaeological site discoveredin the past century was King Tuts Tomb near Luxor, Egypt, in 1922.Linguistics, as you probably know, is the study of language ascommunication among humans. Culture is learned and transmittedprimarily through language.Ethnography is the systematic description of human societies,mostly based on firsthand fieldwork. Based on ethnographies, anthro-pologists provide ethnologies or explanations of the behavior ofdifferent peoples. A second subfield of ethnography is social anthropol-ogy. Social anthropology is concerned with people as social beings. Arelated subject is, of course, sociology.AUDIOSCRIPTS 135Unit OneChapter 2Let me also mention briefly psychological anthropology, whichdeals with human personality and feelings. These are greatly influ-enced by an individuals biological and mental characteristics, as wellas physical surroundings and personal experiences. Related subjects arepsychology and psychiatry.There were a lot of details in this part of the lecture. Let s back-track a bit. Let me spell the last names of the two anthropologistsjust mentioned. Margaret Mead-that s M-e-a-d-and ClydeKluckhohn-K-l-u-c-k-h-o-h-n. Did you write down the threesubfields of cultural anthropology that the speaker mentioned!They were archaeology, linguistics, and ethnography. To save time,you can check the spelling later. Note the mention of psychologi-cal anthropology. What is it concerned with! What are the relatedsubjects! Nowlets see what the speaker talks about next.It is important to note that there are several universals commonamong all societies, for example, the basic similarities in human biol-ogy and the existence of two sexes. Another of these is education-either formal or informal or both. Education is necessary to provide theyoung with the skills and attitudes needed to carry on as adults.So, you might ask, what are the practical applications for such abroad field? The answer is that anthropology helps us plan the future andhelps us contribute to the solution of human problems. This newest areaof the study of man is applied anthropology. Formerly, anthropology waslimited to the academic field. Anthropologists were teachers or museumcurators. But for the past several decades large numbers of anthro grad-uates have been employed in fields such as urban planning and adminis-tration, health care, and international development. Most important isthat although anthropologists have taken up the task of documenting theprocesses and changes of cultures past and present, they also provide thenecessary insights into where the human species is heading.What were the universals mentioned! What are the practicalapplications of the field! Where did we mostly find culturalanthropologists in the past! Did you take down all the job areasmentioned! What were they! Right-urban planning, health care,and international development. Finally, according to the lecturer,what valuable insight does the anthropologist provide!Anthropology:The Evolution of Human EndeavorThe Concept of Culture: Understanding One AnotherQA. Orientation Listening ScriptLet me begin the lecture today by asking, What exactly is culture?This question has been approached by anthropologists in many differ-ent ways. Murdock, for example, in Outline of World Cultures,136 APPENDIX Aproduced what many have called the ultimate laundry list of thingscultural by naming 900-odd categories of human behavior. I wontattempt to go into these at this time. Another less lengthy list is thefamous grocery list of Edward B. Tyler. He wrote, Cultureis that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals,custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as amember of society. But another definition of culture that many finduseful is, the totality of learned, socially transmitted behavior. Obvi-ously this definition leaves out much if we feel obligated to include allthe ways of life that have been evolved by people in every society.A particular culture, then, would mean the total shared way of lifeof a given group. This would include their ways of thinking, acting, andfeeling as reflected in their religion, iaw, language, art, and customs, aswell as concrete things such as houses, clothing, and tools. Culturalanthropology is the study of cultures-living and dead. In its totality,it includes linguistics, the study of speech forms, archaeology (thestudy of dead cultures), and ethnology, which is the study of living cul-tures or those that can be observed directly.Why study cultural anthropology? One reason noted by Ruth Bene-dict, another well-known anthropologist, is that the story of humanityfrom the Stone Age to the present is such a fascinating one of culturalgrowth. Interestingly, every society has gone through three stages orsteps of cultural growth. These are savagery, barbarism, and finally,civilization. The last is, of course, to varying degrees.We are often reminded of another compelling reason to learn aboutdifferent cultures-to learn and use a foreign language effectively. Mostof us realize that just knowing the language of another culture is notenough for meaningful communication. You can ask anyone who hastried to use their high school Spanish inside a Spanish-speaking country.Ned Seelye, in his 1993 book Teaching Culture, lists six skills tonurture and support intercultural communication:Number 1: Cultivate curiosity about another culture and empathytoward its members.Number 2: Recognize that different roles and other social variablessuch as age, sex, social class, religion, ethnicity, and place of resi-dence affect the way people speak and behave.Number 3: Realize that effective communication requires discov-ering the culturally conditioned images of people when they think,act, and react to the world around them.Number 4: Recognize that situational variables and conventionsshape peoples behavior in important ways.Number 5: Understand that people generally act the way they dobecause they are exercising the options their society allows forsatisfying basic physical and psychological needs.And, finally, number 6: Develop the ability to evaluate the truth ofa generalization about the target culture and to locate and organizeAUDIOSCRIPTS 137Chapter 2information about the target culture from books, mass media, peo-ple, and personal observations.Culture and society must coexist. Without living together peoplecannot create a culture or way of life. If a group or society is small,isolated, and stable, it might also share a single culture. For example,think of the Tasaday, allegedly a Stone Age people in the Philippinerain forest, who were discovered by anthropologists back in 1971. Aside note is that due to their supposed isolation, they had no weaponsor known words in their language for enemy or war. In your read-ing after the lecture, youll learn more about the Tasaday and the con-troversy surrounding them up to the present time.It is important to remember, however, that large societies, such asthose in Canada, the United States, India, or Egypt, are multiculturalor pluralist societies. They also tend to have many subcultures. Inthe long history of human life, multiculturalism is a fairly recent phe-nomenon. Those of us in multicultural environments must rememberthat discovering similarities among people from different cultures is asimportant as identifying differences. For example, in classrooms onjust about every university campus in the world, we find students frommany different social and ethnic backgrounds. What are some of theuniversals that you and other international students have all experi-enced in your earlier educational life?One common universal is that all cultures use rewards and punish-ments to encourage correct behavior. Another example is that societieswithhold certain information from the young. This might includefaults in our leaders or sexual taboos. A third universal is the effort bythe controlling group in a culture to