對(duì)外經(jīng)貿(mào)大學(xué)815真題.doc
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對(duì)外經(jīng)濟(jì)貿(mào)易大學(xué)2002年金融專(zhuān)業(yè)考研試題一、填空(每空1分,共9分)1、在某一壟斷競(jìng)爭(zhēng)行業(yè)中,各廠商所生產(chǎn)的產(chǎn)品既存在,同時(shí)有具有。2、以收益形式表現(xiàn)的生產(chǎn)要素邊際生產(chǎn)力通常被稱為。3、凱恩斯主義認(rèn)為,是西方國(guó)家最通常使用的、最主要的貨幣政策工具。4、普惠制條件下,受惠國(guó)向給惠國(guó)輸出的商品享受關(guān)稅優(yōu)惠的程度取決于普惠稅與之間的差額。5、按照目前我國(guó)貸款風(fēng)險(xiǎn)分類(lèi)標(biāo)準(zhǔn),貸款分為正常類(lèi)、類(lèi)、類(lèi)、可疑類(lèi)和損失類(lèi)。6、世界貿(mào)易組織在金融領(lǐng)域所追求的兩大目標(biāo)是和。二、判斷下列各題的敘述是否正確,正確的在每小題前面的括號(hào)內(nèi)劃錯(cuò)誤的劃(每小題1分,共10分)1、( )當(dāng)錄像機(jī)的價(jià)格上升時(shí),錄像帶的需求量會(huì)減少,這是因?yàn)殇浵駲C(jī)和錄像帶之間存在著代替性。2、( )廠商增加一單位產(chǎn)量時(shí)所增加的可變成本等于邊際成本。3、( )在均衡的國(guó)民收入水品上,非計(jì)劃存貨和計(jì)劃存貨投資都必須等于零。4、( )在開(kāi)放經(jīng)濟(jì)中,一國(guó)只能通過(guò)實(shí)施貨幣政策而不是通過(guò)財(cái)政政策實(shí)現(xiàn)充分就業(yè)和國(guó)際收支平衡。5、( )長(zhǎng)期性商品 傾銷(xiāo)往往有賴于規(guī)模經(jīng)濟(jì)或政府出口補(bǔ)貼的支持。6、( )國(guó)際貿(mào)易額是世界各國(guó)進(jìn)口與出口的總和。7、( )在金融市場(chǎng)上,短期利率的波動(dòng)一般要大于長(zhǎng)期利率,但長(zhǎng)期債券的價(jià)格比短期債券的價(jià)格不穩(wěn)定。8、( )根據(jù)中國(guó)人民銀行的規(guī)定,證券交易保證金帳戶存款屬于我國(guó)貨幣統(tǒng)計(jì)中M1的組成部分。9、( )蒙代爾弗萊明模型認(rèn)為,在浮動(dòng)匯率制、貨幣自由流動(dòng)和貨幣自主權(quán)之間存在著三難選擇。10、( )金融服務(wù)附錄規(guī)定,審慎監(jiān)管措施受服務(wù)貿(mào)易總協(xié)定其他條款的限制。三、單項(xiàng)選擇題(將正確答案填寫(xiě)在括號(hào)內(nèi),每題1分,共7分)1、等成本線向內(nèi)移動(dòng)表明A、產(chǎn)量降低了B、生產(chǎn)要素的價(jià)格按相同比例下降了;C、成本減少了;D、生產(chǎn)要素的價(jià)格按不同比例下降了答案( )2、有效關(guān)稅率代表這對(duì)部分的有效保護(hù)。A、產(chǎn)品增值;B、最終產(chǎn)品;C、原材料;D、中間產(chǎn)品答案( )3、政府機(jī)構(gòu)在采購(gòu)貨物時(shí)有限購(gòu)買(mǎi)本國(guó)產(chǎn)品的政策,屬于。A、歧視性政府采購(gòu)政策;B、進(jìn)口押金制;C、進(jìn)出口國(guó)家壟斷;D、特許經(jīng)營(yíng)答案( )4、主要以吸收存款方式籌措資金的金融機(jī)構(gòu)有。A、抵押銀行;B、投資銀行;C、儲(chǔ)蓄銀行;D、開(kāi)發(fā)銀行答案( )5、屬于間接融資工具的是。A、投資基金;B、公司債券;C、非金融公司商業(yè)票據(jù);D、國(guó)庫(kù)卷答案( )6、國(guó)際銀行設(shè)施屬于離岸金融中心的。A、功能中心;B、基金中心;C、名義中心;D、收放中心答案( )7、擇期業(yè)務(wù)與期權(quán)業(yè)務(wù)最主要的區(qū)別是。A、經(jīng)營(yíng)的機(jī)構(gòu)少;B、幣種與金額所受限制不同;C、能否放棄合約的自主權(quán)不同;D、期限不同答案( )四、多項(xiàng)選擇題(將正確答案填在括號(hào)內(nèi),每題2分,共6分)1、對(duì)外貿(mào)易政策由以下內(nèi)容構(gòu)成。A、對(duì)外貿(mào)易總政策;B、產(chǎn)業(yè)政策;C、商業(yè)政策;D、進(jìn)出口商品政策E、國(guó)別地區(qū)政策答案( )2、對(duì)證券公募與私募的比較標(biāo)明。A、公募與私募均要遵守有關(guān)事實(shí)全部公開(kāi)的原則;B、私募較適合于中小公司證券的發(fā)行;C、私募證券可直接上市;D、公募要求證券評(píng)級(jí);E、公募證券不能進(jìn)行柜臺(tái)交易答案( )3、世界銀行的資金來(lái)源除會(huì)員國(guó)交納的股本金外,還包括。A、借款;B、份額;C、債權(quán)轉(zhuǎn)讓?zhuān)籇、利潤(rùn)收入E、捐贈(zèng)收入答案( )五、簡(jiǎn)單準(zhǔn)確解釋下列名次(每題3分,共15分)1、價(jià)格歧視2、收入貿(mào)易條件3、要素價(jià)格均等化定理4、流動(dòng)性陷阱5、特里芬難題六、簡(jiǎn)述題(每題6分,共18分)1、證明短期生產(chǎn)函數(shù)和短期成本函數(shù)的對(duì)偶關(guān)系,并簡(jiǎn)單說(shuō)明它們的變動(dòng)規(guī)律。2、簡(jiǎn)述補(bǔ)貼與反補(bǔ)貼協(xié)議中可申述補(bǔ)貼的含義。3、福費(fèi)廷業(yè)務(wù)能給出口商帶來(lái)那些具體的利益?七、論述題(每題10分,共20分)1、為什么中央銀行要進(jìn)行金融監(jiān)管?其監(jiān)管的主要內(nèi)容是什么?2、根據(jù)IS曲線方程和LM曲線方程推導(dǎo)總需求函數(shù),并說(shuō)明函數(shù)中的參數(shù)對(duì)總需求函數(shù)的影響及其經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)含義。八、案例分析題(第1題7分,第2題8分,共15分)1、某單位欲從國(guó)外商業(yè)銀行籌措一年期的貸款,購(gòu)買(mǎi)機(jī)械設(shè)備,一年期美元貸款利率為10.125,1年期歐元貸款利率為4,根據(jù)權(quán)威機(jī)構(gòu)預(yù)測(cè)在貸款期內(nèi)美元將貶值8,該單位借美元有利還是借歐元有利?為什么(列出演算過(guò)程)2、 假設(shè)某經(jīng)濟(jì)的消費(fèi)函數(shù)為C100+0.8Y(其中Y為個(gè)人可支配收入),投資I100,政府購(gòu)買(mǎi)支出G200,政府轉(zhuǎn)移支付TR62.5(單位均為10億美元),稅率t0.25.問(wèn):(1)均衡國(guó)民收入是多少?(2)投資乘數(shù)和政府稅收乘數(shù)分別是多少?(3)當(dāng)政府將一筆支出用在政府購(gòu)買(mǎi)上對(duì)國(guó)民收入的影響是否和將這一筆支出用在政府轉(zhuǎn)移支付上對(duì)國(guó)民收入的影響一樣?為什么?2005年對(duì)外經(jīng)濟(jì)貿(mào)易大學(xué) 413 國(guó)際貿(mào)易學(xué)綜合試題一、 名詞解釋?zhuān)?分/個(gè))1、 充分就業(yè)預(yù)算盈余答:(1)預(yù)算盈余大小說(shuō)明了財(cái)政取支之間的基本關(guān)系,衡量財(cái)政政策走向的手段。用BS表示,即財(cái)政稅收減去政府購(gòu)買(mǎi)及轉(zhuǎn)移支付后的余額。一般認(rèn)為,BS為正數(shù),說(shuō)明財(cái)政收入大于財(cái)政支出,說(shuō)明財(cái)政政策為緊縮性的;BS為負(fù)數(shù),說(shuō)明財(cái)政收入小于財(cái)政支出,說(shuō)明財(cái)政政策為擴(kuò)張性的,公式為。(2)預(yù)算盈余本身存在缺陷,因?yàn)閲?guó)民收入有周期性收縮或擴(kuò)張,當(dāng)預(yù)算赤字增加時(shí),并不一定意味著政府試圖增加收入水平而改變了政策。鑒于此,為表明正確的財(cái)政政策方向,須將國(guó)民經(jīng)濟(jì)或說(shuō)國(guó)民收入周期性變動(dòng)的因素去掉。(3)充分就業(yè)預(yù)算盈余就是將國(guó)民收入水平固定在充分就業(yè)的收入水平上,或潛在產(chǎn)出水平上的預(yù)算盈余,即為BS*表示,BS*不受經(jīng)濟(jì)周期的影響。當(dāng)BS*大于零時(shí),表明財(cái)政收入大于財(cái)政支出。當(dāng)BS*小于零時(shí),表明財(cái)政收入小于財(cái)政支出。公式為:注:涉及充分就業(yè)預(yù)算盈余的概念,一定要先從預(yù)算盈余這個(gè)概念說(shuō)起。六、論述與計(jì)算分析題(14分)題目:一直總生產(chǎn)函數(shù)為,其中K為資本存量,A為技術(shù)水平,N為勞動(dòng)力數(shù)量。假定,A為1,N以人口自然增長(zhǎng)率n=0.1的速度增長(zhǎng)。(1) 寫(xiě)出人均生產(chǎn)函數(shù)的形式(2) 根據(jù)新古典經(jīng)濟(jì)增長(zhǎng)模型,當(dāng)儲(chǔ)蓄率s=20%時(shí),求經(jīng)濟(jì)穩(wěn)定增長(zhǎng)時(shí)的人均資本量和人均收入。(3) 穩(wěn)定狀態(tài)下的人均增長(zhǎng)率是多少?總收入增長(zhǎng)率是多少?(4) 說(shuō)明有哪些因素影響穩(wěn)態(tài)的人均收入增長(zhǎng)率?如何影響?擴(kuò)展:經(jīng)濟(jì)增長(zhǎng)(多恩 3-4章),可出論述和計(jì)算。出計(jì)算,一般為兩類(lèi):a、,知三求一(,) b、 穩(wěn)態(tài)的公式新古典增長(zhǎng)模型:A、 基本假設(shè):沒(méi)有技術(shù)進(jìn)步(本題中A為1,即滿足了此假設(shè)條件) 儲(chǔ)蓄率(s)固定 人口增長(zhǎng)率(n)固定規(guī)模報(bào)酬不變()邊際報(bào)酬遞減且為正()沒(méi)有政府、對(duì)外貿(mào)易和資本流動(dòng)完全競(jìng)爭(zhēng)市場(chǎng)不考慮貨幣因素B、 從總量生產(chǎn)函數(shù)到人均生產(chǎn)函數(shù)(同時(shí)求對(duì)數(shù)得)(同時(shí)求導(dǎo)數(shù)),增長(zhǎng)的核算:或(總量增長(zhǎng)公式,A為全要素生產(chǎn)率)器推導(dǎo)過(guò)程為:=令為資本報(bào)酬或收入份額,為勞動(dòng)報(bào)酬份額則(要素的貢獻(xiàn)量=要數(shù)報(bào)酬份額*要素增長(zhǎng)率)提高一中要素的增長(zhǎng)率并不能使產(chǎn)出增長(zhǎng)率提高同樣的幅度把總量增長(zhǎng)公式做變形,即為索羅剩余對(duì)技術(shù)進(jìn)步貢獻(xiàn)的度量(09年考了這個(gè)的名詞解釋?zhuān)┌芽偭吭鲩L(zhǎng)公式再做變形,可得人均潛在產(chǎn)出的增長(zhǎng),將,代入,可得或?qū)懗桑ㄟ@個(gè)公式要記?。┐穑海?)由(其中,)(2),穩(wěn)態(tài)時(shí)定義,并且在和的值滿足:當(dāng)s=0.2時(shí),有擴(kuò)展:新古典增長(zhǎng)模型的穩(wěn)態(tài)分析ky*y=Af(k)(n+)ksyk*資本深化資本廣化人均儲(chǔ)蓄 要會(huì)分析這個(gè)圖當(dāng)k小于k*時(shí),存在著資本深化,人均儲(chǔ)蓄大于所需投資,可繼續(xù)買(mǎi)人買(mǎi)機(jī),使人均資本和人均產(chǎn)出都上升,但總產(chǎn)量增長(zhǎng)率大于穩(wěn)態(tài)增長(zhǎng)率直到所有人均儲(chǔ)蓄僅能保持新增人口所需資本和重置投資時(shí),人均收入與人均資本將保持不變,即,同時(shí),此時(shí)為穩(wěn)態(tài)。(3)穩(wěn)態(tài)下,人均收入不變,總收入的增長(zhǎng)率ytt1t0y*y*t0t1(時(shí)間)(4),有三個(gè)原因,a、人口增長(zhǎng)率ky1*yy0*(n0+)k(n1+)k2005年對(duì)外經(jīng)貿(mào)大學(xué) 411金融學(xué)綜合試題一、 名詞解釋1、實(shí)際經(jīng)濟(jì)周期(1)經(jīng)濟(jì)的衰退和繁榮主要被歸因于實(shí)際經(jīng)濟(jì)活動(dòng)的沖擊,而不是貨幣因素的變化。這些真實(shí)因素,如石油危機(jī)、戰(zhàn)爭(zhēng)、人口增減、技術(shù)革新等,市場(chǎng)經(jīng)濟(jì)無(wú)法預(yù)測(cè)到哲學(xué)因素,也無(wú)法自發(fā)地迅速作出反應(yīng)。(2)認(rèn)為實(shí)際觀察到的GDP就是充分就業(yè)的GDP,實(shí)際觀察到的失業(yè)率是自然失業(yè)率。認(rèn)為經(jīng)濟(jì)周期本身就是經(jīng)濟(jì)趨勢(shì)或充分就業(yè)下的GDP的變動(dòng),并不存在與長(zhǎng)期趨勢(shì)不同的短期經(jīng)濟(jì)背離。(3)把 政府的宏觀經(jīng)濟(jì)政策作為外部沖擊之一,主張政府不應(yīng)對(duì)經(jīng)濟(jì)波動(dòng)進(jìn)行干預(yù)。四、簡(jiǎn)答題請(qǐng)指出貨幣政策的最終目標(biāo)與中間目標(biāo)的主要區(qū)別是什么?并說(shuō)明在什么情況下,央行主要以利率或貨幣存量為目標(biāo)來(lái)運(yùn)用貨幣政策?答:貨幣政策的最終目標(biāo)指政策運(yùn)行的宏觀經(jīng)濟(jì)總體目標(biāo),包括四個(gè):充分就業(yè)、穩(wěn)定物價(jià)、經(jīng)濟(jì)增長(zhǎng)和國(guó)際收支平衡。貨幣政策的中間目標(biāo)指中央銀行為了實(shí)現(xiàn)貨幣政策最終目標(biāo)而設(shè)置的可供觀測(cè)和調(diào)整的指標(biāo),可用以衡量最終目標(biāo)所產(chǎn)生的初步影響。一般貨幣政策的中介目標(biāo)滿足可測(cè)性、可控性和相關(guān)性特征,主要有利率和貨幣供應(yīng)量這兩個(gè)。假定:中央銀行的目標(biāo)是使經(jīng)濟(jì)達(dá)到一個(gè)特定的產(chǎn)出水平,考慮3至9個(gè)月的短期。以貨幣存量為目標(biāo)的LM為單調(diào)上升的,以LM(M)表示;以利率為目標(biāo)的LM為平行于橫軸的LM曲線,用LM(i)表示。(1)產(chǎn)量波動(dòng)根源為IS曲線移動(dòng)的情況,則可以保持貨幣存量為目標(biāo)運(yùn)用貨幣政策,使產(chǎn)出水平保持穩(wěn)定。如圖1,央行的目標(biāo)是使產(chǎn)出水平接近Y*,當(dāng)IS1變動(dòng)到IS2時(shí),LM(M)保持不動(dòng),則產(chǎn)出的變動(dòng)為Y1到Y(jié)2,比較接近Y*。此時(shí),保持以利率為目標(biāo)的貨幣政策,如LM(i)則產(chǎn)出偏離Y*會(huì)更遠(yuǎn),如。Y*Y1Y2i*iYLM(i)IS1IS2(2)產(chǎn)量波動(dòng)根源為L(zhǎng)M曲線移動(dòng)的情況。則保持固定的利率水平可以保持產(chǎn)量水平的穩(wěn)定,如圖2,當(dāng)貨幣需求buwending 時(shí),假定央行采用以固定的貨幣存量為目標(biāo),則LM可能是LM1,也可能是LM2,產(chǎn)出為Y1或Y2導(dǎo)致產(chǎn)出如果選擇既定的利率為目標(biāo)是,將利率固定在i*,可保證產(chǎn)出水平為Y*。YLM2LM1Y2Y*Y1i*i對(duì)外經(jīng)貿(mào)大學(xué)2006年碩士學(xué)位研究生入學(xué)考試初試試題 一、名詞解釋?zhuān)啃☆}4分,共16分) 1,價(jià)格歧視 2,平衡預(yù)算乘數(shù) 3,技術(shù)性貿(mào)易壁壘 4,利率平價(jià)理論 二,判斷題(只判斷正誤,無(wú)需改正,每小題1分,共8分) 1、能夠自由取用的商品是機(jī)會(huì)成本為零的商品。 2、經(jīng)濟(jì)租是指為生產(chǎn)要素所支付的金額與為得到使用該要素所必須支付的最小金額之間的差額。 3、國(guó)民生產(chǎn)總值和國(guó)內(nèi)生產(chǎn)總值在數(shù)值上一定不相等。 4、在索洛的經(jīng)濟(jì)增長(zhǎng)模型中儲(chǔ)蓄率是外生的,但在新經(jīng)濟(jì)增長(zhǎng)模型中儲(chǔ)蓄率是內(nèi)生的。 5、不存在要素密集度逆轉(zhuǎn)是要素稟賦理論成立的一個(gè)條件。 6、對(duì)中間投入品征收的進(jìn)口關(guān)稅越高意味著最終產(chǎn)品關(guān)稅的有效保護(hù)率越高。 7、國(guó)際收支順差是一國(guó)增大其外匯儲(chǔ)備最穩(wěn)定、對(duì)可靠的來(lái)源。 8、元?dú)鈪R差實(shí)質(zhì)上是以遠(yuǎn)期匯率為本金,以兩種貨幣利差為利率,從即期至遠(yuǎn)期交割日這段時(shí)間內(nèi)所生的利息。 三,簡(jiǎn)答題(每題8分,共32分) 1,比較說(shuō)明兩個(gè)實(shí)力相當(dāng)?shù)墓杨^廠商在實(shí)現(xiàn)產(chǎn)量決策中的古諾均衡解、串通的均衡解、競(jìng)爭(zhēng)性均衡解和先行者利益均衡解的不同。 2,根據(jù)總需求-總供給模型,分析近兩年來(lái)國(guó)際石油價(jià)格上漲對(duì)一國(guó)經(jīng)濟(jì)短期和長(zhǎng)期的影響。 3,簡(jiǎn)述對(duì)外貿(mào)易乘數(shù)原理。 4,評(píng)析彈性分析理論的主要貢獻(xiàn)和局限性。 四,論述題(每題11分,共33分) 1、當(dāng)前中國(guó)政府不希望改變總需求水平,即維持一個(gè)基本不變的實(shí)際收入水平,但希望通過(guò)降低投資增加消費(fèi)來(lái)改變總需求的構(gòu)成,你認(rèn)為這需要什么樣的宏觀政策組合?請(qǐng)用IS-LM模型表示你的政策主張及其對(duì)投資、消費(fèi)、收入和利率的影響。 2、試述PETER.J.Buckley等人建立和發(fā)展的內(nèi)部化論點(diǎn)是如何進(jìn)行企業(yè)跨國(guó)經(jīng)營(yíng)動(dòng)機(jī)解釋的? 3、在中國(guó)建設(shè)銀行路演前,業(yè)內(nèi)很多人士對(duì)此次上市的前景不太樂(lè)觀,但是在2005年10月5日,建行開(kāi)始全球路演后,其股票受到廣大投資者的極大青睞,取得“超過(guò)5000億港元市值,622億港元籌資額,近10倍國(guó)際超額認(rèn)購(gòu)”的業(yè)績(jī),完全出乎此前的預(yù)期,請(qǐng)你分析其中原因。 五,計(jì)算與分析題(11分) 假定某國(guó)一種商品的國(guó)內(nèi)供給和需求函數(shù)為Qs=P-50,Qd=100-0.5P,在整個(gè)世界市場(chǎng)中,該國(guó)這種商品的市場(chǎng)份額很小,因此該國(guó)無(wú)力影響世界市場(chǎng)的現(xiàn)行價(jià)格。已知該商品的現(xiàn)行世界市場(chǎng)價(jià)格為60美元,該國(guó)政府決定對(duì)每進(jìn)口一單位的該商品征收關(guān)稅40美元。問(wèn):(1)征收關(guān)稅后,該商品的本國(guó)國(guó)內(nèi)價(jià)格是多少?(2)征收關(guān)稅給本國(guó)國(guó)內(nèi)消費(fèi)者、國(guó)內(nèi)生產(chǎn)者和政府帶來(lái)的收益和損失各是多少?(3)如果對(duì)每進(jìn)口一單位的該商品征收關(guān)稅20美元,結(jié)果如何? 六,英譯漢(50分) 1,On a wing and scare(20) Fear seems to be dominant mood of the moment. Hurricanes, tidal waves, floods, earthquakes and terrorism this year have all brought with them not only appalling scenes of devastation, death and suffering, but also outrage at lack of preparations to avoid or copy with these disasters. Now even the birds of the air are a threat, we are told. The migrating flock visible on the horizon at sunset, once a consoling reminder of the eternal rhythms of nature, could be carrying the virus which might soon kill tens of millions of people. Given the many fingers pointed at governments in the wake of other disasters this year, it is hardly surprising that they are scrambling to respond to the threat posed by avian influenza. After confirmation this week that the H5N1 strain of bird flu,which has been spreading quickly in Asia, has been discovered in Romania and perhaps Greece, European Union foreign ministers convened and emergency meeting. President Gorge Bush, still smarting from a torrent of criticism of his governments clumsy response to Hurricane Katrina, has promised to rush out emergency plans for dealing with an outbreak of pandemic flu which has been stalled for years. Countries around world are hurrying to stockpile the only current antiviral drug,Tamiflu, which might be effective in saving lives in any pandemic or curbing its spread. The World Health Organisation is calling for an international co-ordinated effort. Health ministers from around the globe are due to meet next week in Canada to discuss what steps to take. Is any of this effort justified? Or are politicians simply helping to feed public panic, and then covering themselves by promising to spend lavishly against a threat which may never materialise and to reduce a risk which they do not understand? To apply the kind of test which is required in any kind of disaster planning, no least because the world is an inherently dangerous place and it is impossible to plan against every possible disaster. With the media full of warnings of impending mass death, and overreaction is all too possible. 2.Competition and Price.(15) Just as scarcity is an economic fact of life, so is competition. If you set out to sell a product or service in a free-market society, chances are that someone else will be trying to sell something similar. And because potential customers are free to buy where they please, you must competer with your rivals for those customersbusiness. You might choose to compete in one of three ways: Price, quality, or innovation. Take the fast food business, for example. A couple of years age, Taco Bell, which competes with hamburger chains like McDonalds and Burger King, Launched a full-scale price war by reducing the price of its tacos and burritos from 79 and 89 cents to 59 cents. When scales jumped by 27 percent, it slashed prices on 16 of its 23 menu items, and scales climbed another 19 percent, Meanwhile,sales in the fast-food business in general increased by only 3%. The catch, of course, is that Taco Bell now gets less money for almost every item it sells, and it still has to cover the same expenses-buying ingredients, paying employees, and so forth. How can the company charge less and still make a worthwhile profit? The answer is that the lower price attracts more customers. Even though Taco Bell makes less on each item, its luring people away from its rivals and is consequently making more money than it used to.,Stung by the competition, McDonlds followed suit by offering lower prices on certain items and special meal combinations., Now everybody in the fast-foodbusiness is feeling the profit squeeze. So what are they all doing? Theyre trying to operate more efficiently, hustling to maintain their profit margins by tightening their grip on costs. And they are hoping that lower prices will continue to increase the number of visits made by customers who are heavily fast-food users(those who eat at fast-food restaurants more than 18times per month, representing over 70 percent of scales in the industry). Head-on compitition tends to keep prices down, which is good for the buying public. At the same time, it holds out the promise of great profits to the business that can sell more of its product of service than competitors do. 3.Export Credit Cuarantee(15) Exporting goods to overseas markets on deferred payment terms brings with it two types of credit risk for the exporter: commercial or buyer risk(for example, the buyer becomintg insolvent or failing to pay for same other reason) and political or non-buyer risk(for example, actions of overseas governments or other events such as war or civil unrest of natural disasters which prevent the buyer from paying).Depending on the length time for which credit is extented, export credits are traditionally divided into "short-term"(under two years), "medium-term"(two to five years) and "long-term"(over five years) credits. Arrangements are available which enable an exp