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1、外文文獻(xiàn)翻譯 The effects of subjective norms on behaviour in the theory of planned behaviour: A meta-analysis Mark Manning* University of Massachusetts, Amherst, Massachusetts, USA A meta-analysis investigated the effects of perceived injunctive (IN) and descriptive (DN) norms on behaviour (BEH) withi

2、n the theory of planned behaviour (TPB) in a sample of 196 studies. Two related correlation matrices (pairwise and listwise) were synthesized from the data and used to model the TPB relations with path analyses.Convergent evidence indicated that the relation between DN and BEH was stronger than the

3、relation between IN and BEH. Evidence also suggested a significant direct relation between DN and BEH in the context of TPB. A suppressor effect of IN on DN in its relation with BEH was also noted? Moderator analyses indicated that the DN-BEH relation was stronger when there was more time between me

4、asures of cognition and behaviour, when behaviours were not socially approved, more socially motive and more pleasant: results were mixed in the case of the IN-BEH relation. Results imply that IN and DN are conceptually different constructs? As social beings, normative pressure inevitably affects o

5、ur behaviour? Social nonns influence the way we dress, how we vote, what we buy, and a host of other behavioural decisions.Social psychologists have been exploring the influence of social norms on behaviour for decades? From AschM and Milgram s conformity- experiments (Asch, 19S6;Milgram, Bickman, &

6、 Berkowitz, 1969) through recent work by Cialdini and colleagues(Cialdini, Reno. & Kallgren, 1990; Reno, Cialdini, & Kallgren, 1993), a substantial body of evidence has demonstrated that people conform to the judgments and behaviours of others. In experiments conducted by Cialdini and his colleague

7、s (Cialdini et al., 1990; Reno et al., 1993), participants inferred behavioural norms for littering from environmental cues and acted in accord with these norms. The results highlight the fact that perceptions of norms, ratber than actual norms, can affect behaviour? Tlie relation between perceived

8、norms and behaviour has received much empirical support (Borsari & Carey, 2003; Campo, Brossard. Fnizer. Marchell, Lewis, & Talbot, 2003; Gomberg, Schneider, & Dejong, 2(K)I; Grube, Morgan, & MeGree, 1986; Okun, Karoly, & Lutz,2002; Riniai & Real. 2005). However, one ofthc most influential models fo

9、r predicting behaviour, the thcor>*of planned behaviour (TPB; Ajzcn, 1991), posits that rather than a direct relation between norm and behaviour, perceived nortns influence behaviour indirectly by way of behavioural intentions. Investigating the perceived norm-behaviour relation in tlic context of t

10、his theory offers insight not only into the strength of the relation, but also into the extent to which perceived norms may directly influence behaviour counter to theoretical expectations. The present study used mcta-analytic path analyses to examine, the relation between two types of perceived no

11、rms (injunctive (IN) and descriptive (DN) norms; described below) and behaviour in the context of the TPB (Ajzcn. 1991). The investigation explored the direct effects of IN and DN on behaviour as well as factors that may moderate the effect of subjective norms (SN) on behaviour? The theory of plann

12、ed behaviour According to the TPB, the immediate antecedent of behaviour is the intention to pertbrm the behaviour (Figure 1). This behavioural intention is in turn a function of three major determinants: attitude towards the behaviour, perceived SN pertaining to the behaviour, and perceived degree

13、 of control over engaging in and ctJmpleting the behaviour (perceived behavioural control). The formation of attitudes (ATT), SN and perceived behavioural control (PBC) are respectively functions of behavioural beliefs, normative beliefs and control beliefs that a person holds with regards to the b

14、ehaviour? Concerning ATT, the set of accessible beliefs that a person holds about the outcome of a behaviour will determine the evaluation of the behaviour, and thus influence the strength and direction of the ATT towards the behaviour.SN are a function of the normative beliefs that people relevant

15、to the individual are perceived as having towards tbe behaviour coupled with the motivation of the individual to comply with the expected notins of these relevant persons? PBC is a function of the perceived factors that will influence the ability to engage in the behaviour coupled with the perceptio

16、n as to whether or not these factors will be present. In short, the TPB holds that favourable ATT, SN. And perceptions of control will lead to favourable intentions to engage in a given behaviour. Actual control over engaging in the behaviour is itself an important determinant? To the extent that i

17、ndividuals realistically appraise the amount of control that they have over the behaviour, the measure of PBC; can serve as a proxy for actual control. Perceived control is expected to have a moderating effect such that intentions will be reflected in actual behaviour to the extent that perceived co

18、ntrol is high. The TPB has been applied successfully to a wide range of behaviours accounting for a sizable amount of variance (Armitage & Ckmner, 2001: Bamberg, Ajzen, & Schmidt,2003; Hardeman. Johnston. Johnston, Bonetti, Wareham, & Kinmonth. 2002; Povey.Wellens, & Conner, 2001; Rise. Thompson. &

19、 Verplanken, 2003). Regarding the SN construct, the theory holds that the effect of SN on behaviour is fully mediated by behavioural intentions? In other words, SN are not expected to have a direct effect (DE)on behaviour but instead influetice behaviours indirectly through their effect on intention

20、s. Descriptive and injunctive norms Two types of SN can be distinguished. IN are social pressures to engage in a behaviour based on the perception of what other people want you to do whereas DN are social pressures based on the observed or inferred behaviour of others? Tliis distinction has been e

21、mpirically supported (Cialdini et al .,1990; Deutsch & Gerard.1955; Grube et al., 1986; Larimer & Neighbours, 2005; Larimer. Turner, Mallett. & Geisner, 2004; Reno et al.,1993; Rhodes & Courneya, 2003; White, Terry, & Hogg, 1994). Within the TPB, the SN construct was originally conceptualized as an

22、injunctive norm (Ajzen, 1991). More recently, however, Ajzen and Fishbein (200S) have recommended including both types of normative measures in constructing planned behaviour stirveys? DN and IN will therefore be considered separately in the analyses to follow. Subjective norms-behaviour relation

23、In reviewing the SN construct in the planned behaviour context, Conner and Armitage(1998) have noted the lack of predictive power of the IN construct when predicting intention. Due to the paucity- of studies including DN in the planned behaviour context,conclusions regarding DN in this context are s

24、parser. Recently, several investigators have included DN as predictors of intentions in the planned behaviour model (PBM;Fekadu & Kraft, 2002; MCiMUlan & Conner, 2(K)3; Okun et al.. 2002: Sheeran & Orbell, 1999b). Rivis and Sbeeran (2003) conducted a meta-analysis of DN in the planned behaviour con

25、text. Their analysis, based on 18 studies, demonstrated a significant relationship between DN and intention when controlling for otlier variables in the TPB.In that, these previous studies have investigated the effects of SN on intentions, to date,no planned behaviour mcta-ana lysis has explored the

26、 potential for differences in the effects of SN on behaviour in the planned behaviour context. Deutsch and Gerard (1955) have suggested that DN and IN refer to different sources of motivation. Regarding DN, it has been shown that perceptions of behaviours of others lead one to behave in similar man

27、ners (Asch, 1956;Milgram et al., 1969). Descriptive normative information functions as a heuristic with regards to behavioural decisions offering cues as to what is appropriate behaviour iii a given situation (Cialdini et al., 1990; van Knippenberg, 2000). IN on the other iiand operate more through

28、the role of motivation to comply with social sanctions (Ajzen, 1991;Lapinski & Rimal, 2005). To the extent that individuals are motivated to comply with perceived behavioural expectations of relevant referents, they avoid social sanctions? Though several studies have looked at the effect of one or

29、botli types of norms on particular behaviours, there has yet to be a single meta-analytical review that compares the relationship between the two types of norms and behaviours across a spectrum of behaviours. Consequently, on a general level it is unknown whether one type of norm has a stronger effe

30、ct on behaviour than the other it may be hypothesized that DN have a stronger effect on behaviour than IN because DN are activated in the immediate behavioural situation. Furthermore, processing of DN for behavioural decisions may require less cognitive effort relative to the processing of IN, in th

31、at DN may rely more on heuristic than systematic informatioprocessing? Perhaps, this advantage contributes to efficient behavioural decision?making in line with descriptive normative information. In fact, researchers have shown that conditions that facilitate the use of heuristic information-process

32、ing lead participants to act more in line with DN (Hertel, Neuhof, Theucr, & Kerr, 2000). It is expected therefore, that DN will have a stronger effect on behaviour relative to IN. Direct effect ofSN on behaviour The TPB posits that the relationship between SN and behaviour is fully mediated by be

33、havioural intentions (Ajzen, 1991; Ajzen & Fishbein, 1973)? However, a number of planned behaviour studies that have included normative constructs as a behavioural predictor have found direct effects of SN on behaviour (Christian & Abrams, 2004 -Study 2; Christian & Arm讓age, 2002; Christian, Armitag

34、e, & Abrams, 2003; Okun et al.,2002; Trafimow & Finlay, 2001). In most research with the TPB, the effect of the normative component on intentions has received most attention (Armitage & Conner,2001; Rivis & Sheeran, 2003) while the potential for a DE of SN on behaviour has received little empirical

35、or meta-analytical scrutiny.One reason to explore, the potential for a DE may be the hypothetical nature under which most people report cognitions pertaining to behaviour in planned behaviour studies? Hypothetical contexts may not accurately reflect the relations between cognitions and behaviours th

36、at are evident in real behavioural contexts (Ajzen, Brown, & Carvajal, 2004). Furthermore, when an individual reports an intention to engage in a particular behaviour in one instance, that behavioural intention may be subject to change from the instance it is formed to the moment when an opportunity

37、 for behavioural engagement arises (Ajzen, 1991).For example, in the classic linn (1965) study, hotel managers expressed little intent to allow Chinese couples to stay in their hotels, however allowed them to do so when the instance arose? It is less likely that perceptions of norms related to the b

38、ehaviour will change over time. Consequently, there is the potential for reported normative perceptions to have stronger relations with behaviour compared with relations between reported behavioural intentions and behaviour. This may be reflected in the presence of a DE of SN on the particular behav

39、iour. The present meta-analjtical synthesis provides the opportunity* to gauge the potential for a direct relation between SN and behaviour in the context of the TPB. Variation in the magnitude of the SN^ehaviour relationship The possibility of a DE of SN on behaviour within the TPB implies that t

40、here are two ways in which SN can affect behaviour. There can be the theoretically posited indirect effect on behaviour mediated through intentions, and there may be a DE on behaviour. The total effect therefore is the sum of these two effects? In accord with the prediction that DN have a stronger r

41、elation with behaviours compared to the IN-behaviour relation, it is expected that the total effect of DN on behaviour is greater than the total effect of IN on behaviour. In addition to predicted differences between DN and IN in their effects on behaviour, there is the potential for differences in

42、the magnitude of the effect within each type of norm. Compatibility* between measures of cognition and behaviour and the time between measurement of cognitions and behaviour are expected to lead to differences in the magnitudes of the effects of SN on behaviour. Additionally, the potential moderatin

43、g effect of three further variables will be explored;the level of social approval of the behaviour, the extent to which social motives underlie behaviour, and the extent to which a behaviour is uselial versus pleasant may all contribute to variance in the relationship between norms and behaviour. C

44、ompatibility Elements of a particular behaviour can be defined in terms of the behavioural target, the action involved in the behaviour, the context in which the behaviour is performed, and the time at wliich it is performed. The relationship between cognitive predictors of a particular behaviour a

45、nd engagement in the behaviour will be stronger if behavioural elements and cognitive assessment of the behaviour are compatible (Ajzen, 1996; Ajzen & Fishbein. 1977). That is to say., for instance, that if an investigator would tike to pretlict someones propensity* to exercise 3 days a week for hal

46、f an hour, measures should assess cognitions regarding exercising 3 days a week for half an hour rather than cognitions to be healthy, or some other general cognition regarding exercise? Tenned the ”principle of compatibility0, it holds that measurements of planned behaviour variables must be compat

47、ible with the target behaviour in terms of target, action, context, and time. Given the effect of compatibility and the magnitude of the correlations between planned behaviour variables and behavioural measures, it is expected that studies where the cognitive and behavioural measures are fully compa

48、tible will feature stronger relations between SN and behaviour. It is also expected that among studies where measures are more compatible, the intention mediated relation between SN and behaviour will be stronger than any unmediated relation, in line with theoretical dictates, whereas among studies

49、that are less compatible there will potentially be greater direct effects of SN on behaviour. Time interval between measures of SN and behaviour According to Ajzen ( 1991 ). cognitive precursors of behaviour that are measured closer to the target behaviour should be more predictive of behavioural

50、engagement. Due to motivational considerations, measures of the intention to engage in a particular behaviour will vary as a function of proximity to behavioural engagement (Bandura & Schunk. 1981; Kamiol & Ross, 1996; Steel & Konig, 2006) in that tlie ftirther in the future is the potential behavio

51、ural engagement, the less predictive are intentions to engage in this behaviour. As Ibe relation between stated intentions and actual behaviour decreases over time, the potential exists for SN to be relatively more predictive of behaviour. This potential is evident in light of the argument outlined

52、above wherein SN pertaining to a behaviour are less likely to change over time compared to behavioural intentions. As such, it is expected that as the time between measurement of cognitions and behaviour increases, SN will be reflected to a greater extent in actual behaviour.Furthermore, as the rela

53、tion between intentions and behaviour diminishes, it is likely that the DE of SN on behaviour will be stronger as more time passes between measures of cognition and behaviour. 計劃行為理論 根據(jù)TPB理論，行為的直接前因是執(zhí)行行為的意向。這種行為的意圖主要包括三個因 素：態(tài)度的行為，知覺的SN有關(guān)行為，從事和完成控制的認(rèn)知度行為(知覺行為控制)。 態(tài)度(ATT) , SN和知覺行為控制(PBC)的形成分別由于行為的

54、信念，規(guī)范信念和控 制信念，是人持有對待行為的。有關(guān)ATT,訪問信念，一個人擁有一個行為的結(jié)果將決定行 為的評價，從而影響態(tài)度對于行為的強(qiáng)度和方向。SN形成于規(guī)范信念，有關(guān)的人個別被視 為對行為的動機(jī)，加上有個人遵守有關(guān)人士預(yù)期的規(guī)范。PBC是知覺因素的作用，這將影響 從事行為的能力以及這些因素呈現(xiàn)與否的觀感。 簡而言之，TPB認(rèn)為，良好的ATT, SN,和控制的看法會導(dǎo)致有利的意圖從事某一行為。 從事實際控制行為本身就是一個重要的決定因素。在某種程度上，個人實事求是地評價了控 制他們的行為的量，PBC的測量可以作為一個實際控制代理。預(yù)計知覺控制有一個調(diào)節(jié)作用， 這樣的意圖將反映在實際行為知

55、覺控制，程度是高的。 TPB已成功地應(yīng)用于廣泛的行為占相當(dāng)數(shù)量的方差。關(guān)于SN結(jié)構(gòu)，該理論認(rèn)為，對SN 對行為的影響完全中介行為意圖。換句話說，SN預(yù)計不會對行為有直接影響(DE)的行為， 而是通過他們對意圖的影響間接影響行為。 描述和強(qiáng)制性規(guī)范 SN可以區(qū)分為兩種類型。IN是基于感知其他人要你做什么的從事行為的社會壓力而DN 是基于別人被觀察或被推斷的行為的社會壓力。這個區(qū)別得到實證支持。根據(jù)TPB, SN結(jié)構(gòu) 最初概念化作為強(qiáng)制令規(guī)范，然而最近Ajzen and Fishbein (2005)建議包括兩種類型的規(guī)范 措施在建設(shè)規(guī)劃的行為調(diào)查中，DN和IN將因此被認(rèn)為是單獨(dú)分析。 主

56、觀規(guī)范行為的關(guān)系 在審查計劃行為方面的SN結(jié)構(gòu)中，Conner and Armitage (1998)已經(jīng)注意到在預(yù)測意圖 時預(yù)測能力的缺乏。由于包括在計劃行為方面的DN研究的不足，在這方面的DN的結(jié)論是稀少 的。近日，一些研究者已經(jīng)把DN作為意向的預(yù)測列入計劃行為模型，進(jìn)行DN在計劃行為方面 的meta分析。他們的分析，根據(jù)18項研究，表現(xiàn)出在TPB中控制其他變量時DN和意圖之間的 關(guān)系。在這，這些以前的研究已經(jīng)考察了SN對意圖的影響，迄今，沒有計劃行為meta分析探 討了 SN在計劃行為方面對行為的影響的潛在差異。 Deutsch and Gerard (1955)有建議DN和IN涉及

57、不同來源的動機(jī)。關(guān)于DN,它已被證明 對他人的行為的看法導(dǎo)致一個類似的舉止行為。描述規(guī)范性信息可以作為行為決定的啟發(fā), 在特定情況下提供線索。IN另一方面，通過角色的動機(jī)以符合社會的制裁。在某種程度上， 個人以符合所指有關(guān)的知覺行為的期望為動機(jī)，他們避免了社會的制裁。 雖然一些研究著重一種或兩種類型對特定行為的規(guī)范的影響，目前尚未有是一個單一的 meta分析審查，比較兩種類型的整個頻譜的行為規(guī)范和行為之間的關(guān)系。 因此，一般水平，一個規(guī)范類型對行為是否比其他類型具有更強(qiáng)的影響是未知的.可以 推測該DN相比于IN對行為有更強(qiáng)的影響，因為DN啟動在即時的行為情況。此外，DN對行為決 定的處理可

58、能需要相對較少的認(rèn)知努力相較于IN的處理，DN可以更多地依靠啟發(fā)式信息處 理。也許，這一優(yōu)勢有助于有效的行為決定和描述規(guī)范信息。事實上，研究人員已經(jīng)證明， 方便使用啟發(fā)式信息處理這一條件引導(dǎo)參加者采取更多行動與DN,因t匕預(yù)計，DN將對行為有 更強(qiáng)的影響相較于IN。 SN對行為的直接影響 TPB認(rèn)為SN和行為之間的關(guān)系完全通過行為意圖斷定。然而，一些計劃行為研究，包括 規(guī)范行為的預(yù)測結(jié)構(gòu)的研究發(fā)現(xiàn)，SN對行為的直接影響。在TPB大多數(shù)的研究中，規(guī)范部分 對意圖的影響已受到到很大關(guān)注，而SN對行為的影響的DE潛力只有一點(diǎn)經(jīng)驗或meta分析的審 議。探索的一個原因，根據(jù)大多數(shù)人在計劃行為研究中

59、的認(rèn)知行為報告，DE的潛力可能是假 設(shè)性質(zhì)。假設(shè)背景下，可能無法準(zhǔn)確反映在實際行為背景下是明顯的認(rèn)知和行為之間的關(guān)系。 此外，個體在一個實例中有意從事特定行為，在行為參與的機(jī)會出現(xiàn)時，該行為意圖可能會 從形成時刻的實例受到改變。例如，在經(jīng)典的林恩(1965)的研究中，酒店經(jīng)理表示沒有意 圖讓中國夫婦留在他們的酒店，但當(dāng)這樣做的實例出現(xiàn)吋則允許。有關(guān)行為準(zhǔn)則的觀念會隨 時間而改變，這是不太可能的。因此，報告規(guī)范性的看法與行為有更強(qiáng)的關(guān)系是有可能的， 與報告行為意圖和行為之間的關(guān)系相比。這可能體現(xiàn)在SN對特定行為的直接影響的存在。本 meta分析的合成提供了衡量在TPB背景下SN和行為之間直接關(guān)系

60、的潛力的機(jī)會。 變化的幅度的的SN行為關(guān)系 在TPB理論下SN對行為的直接影響的可能性意味著有兩種SN可以影響行為的方法。對 行為理論上假定的間接影響可以通過意向被介導(dǎo)，有可能有對行為的直接影響。因此，總的 效果是這兩種效應(yīng)的總和。與預(yù)測一致，與IN相比，DN與行為的關(guān)系更強(qiáng)，據(jù)預(yù)計，DN 對行為總的影響比IN對行為總的影響更大。此外DN和IN對行為影響預(yù)測的分歧，有可能 是數(shù)量級的差異對每個類型的規(guī)范作用。認(rèn)知措施和行為之間的兼容性以及認(rèn)知措施和行為 之間的的時間，預(yù)計將導(dǎo)致SN對行為的影響程度的差異。此外，另外三個變量的影響潛在 的干擾，將被探討：社會認(rèn)可的行為水平，在何種程度上的社會

61、動機(jī)的基礎(chǔ)行為，以及行為 是有用與愉快的，可能都有助于規(guī)范和行為之間的關(guān)系方差的程度。 兼容性 一個特定的行為的元素可以被定義在行為目標(biāo)方面，參與行為的行動，行為執(zhí)行的背景 以及它執(zhí)行的吋間。一個特定行為的認(rèn)知預(yù)測和參與行為的關(guān)系將會更強(qiáng)，如果行為元素和 行為的認(rèn)知評估是兼容的。也就是說，例如，如果研究者想預(yù)測別人每周3天一個半小時的 鍛煉的傾向，措施應(yīng)評估認(rèn)知方面鍛煉一個半小時，每周3天，而不是對健康的認(rèn)知，或一 些其他一般的鍛煉認(rèn)知。被稱為“兼容性原則”，它認(rèn)為，計劃行為變量的測量必須與目標(biāo), 行動，背景，和時間方面的目標(biāo)行為兼容。由于計劃行為變量和行為措施之間兼容性和相關(guān) 性幅度的影

62、響，預(yù)計認(rèn)知和行為的措施是完全兼容的研究，SN和行為之間的關(guān)系將更強(qiáng)。 還預(yù)計，措施越兼容的研究，SN和行為之間的意向介導(dǎo)的關(guān)系將是比任何中間人的關(guān)系更 強(qiáng)，而理論支配，眾研究中越不兼容的SN對行為的影響將有可能更直接。 SN措施和行為之間的時間間隔 根據(jù)Ajzen (1991),行為的認(rèn)知前兆測量越接近目標(biāo)行為前兆，行為參與應(yīng)該是越預(yù) 測性的。由于動機(jī)的考慮，從事特定行為的意圖的措施會變化為和行為參與的接近，在未來 的進(jìn)一步是潛在的行為參與，從事這種行為的意圖是具有較少預(yù)測性的。隨著時間的推移, 確定意圖和實際行為之間的關(guān)系下降，SN是相對較預(yù)測性行為的可能存在。這種潛力是顯 而易見的，以上其中SN所列行為有關(guān)的參數(shù)是不太可能隨著時間的推移改變的，與行為意 圖相比。正因為如此，它預(yù)計，由于認(rèn)知措施和行為之間時間增加，SN將反映在更大程度 上的實際行為。此外，意圖和行為之間關(guān)系的下降，隨著認(rèn)知措施和行為之間更多吋間的傳 遞，可能SN對行為的直接影響會變得更強(qiáng)。 08國貿(mào)3班