紅外遙控電路設(shè)計(jì)資料

紅外遙控電路設(shè)計(jì)資料,紅外,遙控,電路設(shè)計(jì),資料 天津工程師范學(xué)院 畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)（論文）任務(wù)書(shū) 2006 年 10月 15日 題 目 （包括副標(biāo)題） 紅外遙控電路設(shè)計(jì) 教師姓名 葛穎 系 別 電子工程 職 稱 講師 學(xué)生姓名 陳春秀 班 級(jí) 應(yīng)電041 學(xué) 號(hào) 21 課題成果形式 論文█ 設(shè)計(jì)說(shuō)明書(shū)□ 實(shí)物█ 軟件□ 其它□ 1．畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)（論文）課題任務(wù)的內(nèi)容和要求（如原始數(shù)據(jù)、技術(shù)要求、工作要求等）： 1、畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)主要內(nèi)容 1．紅外遙控電路設(shè)計(jì)； 2．2006 年11月9日完成開(kāi)題報(bào)告； 3．畫(huà)出標(biāo)準(zhǔn)電路原理圖（電子板），給出測(cè)試點(diǎn)電壓或電流； 4．2007年5月10日完成中期報(bào)告； 5．制作實(shí)際電路（手工焊接），描述硬件電路特性； 6．本專業(yè)英語(yǔ)譯文3000字符以上（內(nèi)容自選、應(yīng)與畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)題目密切相關(guān)）； 7．撰寫(xiě)畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)論文（10000字以上）； 8．2007年6月1日提交畢業(yè)論文初稿； 9．根據(jù)學(xué)院的具體要求，完成畢業(yè)答辯相關(guān)事宜。 2．畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)（論文）工作進(jìn)度計(jì)劃： 周 次 工作內(nèi)容 2006年10月15 日 2006年11月9 日 第一周 第二周 第三周 第四周 第五周 第六周 第七周 第八周 下達(dá)畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)任務(wù)書(shū) 開(kāi)題報(bào)告 查閱相關(guān)資料，確定設(shè)計(jì)方案；、 設(shè)計(jì)電路 設(shè)計(jì)電路方案確定 提交中期報(bào)告、購(gòu)買電子元器件 焊接電路、軟件編程、調(diào)試電路 修改畢業(yè)論文、畢業(yè)論文預(yù)答辯 撰寫(xiě)畢業(yè)論文、提交畢業(yè)論文初稿 準(zhǔn)備答辯，對(duì)設(shè)計(jì)內(nèi)容進(jìn)行總結(jié)，弄懂各部分的原理及系統(tǒng)的 工作過(guò)程，寫(xiě)出畢業(yè)答辯的發(fā)言稿，做到心中有數(shù)，應(yīng)對(duì)畢業(yè)答辯。 教研室（學(xué)科組）主任簽字： 畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)（論文）開(kāi)題報(bào)告 題目：紅外遙控電路設(shè)計(jì) 系 別： 電子工程系 班 級(jí)： 應(yīng)電041班 學(xué)生姓名： 陳春秀 指導(dǎo)教師： 葛穎 2006年11月9日  開(kāi)題報(bào)告填寫(xiě)要求 1．開(kāi)題報(bào)告作為畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)答辯委員會(huì)對(duì)學(xué)生答辯資格審查的依據(jù)材料之一，應(yīng)在指導(dǎo)教師指導(dǎo)下，由學(xué)生在畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)工作前期完成，經(jīng)指導(dǎo)教師簽署意見(jiàn)、專家組及系主任審查后生效； 2．開(kāi)題報(bào)告必須用黑墨水筆工整書(shū)寫(xiě)或按教務(wù)處統(tǒng)一設(shè)計(jì)的電子文檔標(biāo)準(zhǔn)格式（可從教務(wù)處網(wǎng)頁(yè)上下載）打印，禁止打印在其它紙上后剪貼； 3．畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)的開(kāi)題報(bào)告應(yīng)包括以下內(nèi)容： （1）主要技術(shù)指標(biāo)； （2）工作思路； （3）課題的準(zhǔn)備情況及進(jìn)度計(jì)劃； （4）參考文獻(xiàn)。 4．開(kāi)題報(bào)告的撰寫(xiě)應(yīng)符合科技文獻(xiàn)規(guī)范，且不少于2000字；參考文獻(xiàn)應(yīng)不少于15篇，包括科技期刊、教科書(shū)、專著、外文等。 5．開(kāi)題報(bào)告正文字體采用宋體小四號(hào)，1.5倍行距。附頁(yè)為A4紙型，左邊距3cm，右邊距2cm，上下邊距為2.5cm，字體采用宋體小四號(hào)，1.5倍行距。 畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)（論文）開(kāi)題報(bào)告 課題題目 紅外遙控電路設(shè)計(jì) 課題類型 工程設(shè)計(jì) 課題來(lái)源 自擬 成果形式 實(shí)作 同組同學(xué) 無(wú) 開(kāi)題報(bào)告內(nèi)容（可另附頁(yè)） 畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)開(kāi)題報(bào)告： （后接附頁(yè)） 指導(dǎo)教師意見(jiàn)（課題難度是否適中、工作量是否飽滿、進(jìn)度安排是否合理、工作條件是否具備等） 指導(dǎo)教師簽名： 月 日 專家組及系里意見(jiàn)（選題是否適宜、各項(xiàng)內(nèi)容是否達(dá)到畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)（論文）大綱要求、整改意見(jiàn)等） 專家組成員簽字： 教學(xué)主任（簽章）： 月 日 天津工程師范學(xué)院 學(xué)生畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)（論文）中期報(bào)告 系別 電子系 班級(jí) 應(yīng)電041 學(xué)生 姓名 陳春秀 指導(dǎo) 教師 葛穎 課題名稱：紅外遙控發(fā)射接收電路設(shè)計(jì) 簡(jiǎn)述開(kāi)題以來(lái)所做的具體工作、取得的進(jìn)展及下一步主要工作： 1、 開(kāi)題以來(lái)所做的具體工作和取得的進(jìn)展或成果 在圖書(shū)館和網(wǎng)上收集相關(guān)資料，學(xué)習(xí)了單片機(jī)理論，在此基礎(chǔ)上，對(duì)單片機(jī)有了一個(gè)整體的認(rèn)識(shí)，基本完成了前面理論部分的學(xué)習(xí)。經(jīng)過(guò)查閱大量的相關(guān)資料，現(xiàn)在已經(jīng)對(duì)紅外遙控的原理有了一個(gè)清晰深入的了解，對(duì)單片機(jī)控制系統(tǒng)及其原理進(jìn)行了詳細(xì)分析，并對(duì)單片機(jī)的接口電路都進(jìn)行了詳細(xì)的了解。 現(xiàn)在正在完成相關(guān)電路的制作及相關(guān)程序的編寫(xiě)，并解決在此過(guò)程中所遇到的問(wèn)題，收集制作過(guò)程中的相關(guān)資料，為畢業(yè)論文的撰寫(xiě)準(zhǔn)備資料。 2、存在的具體問(wèn)題 在制作過(guò)程當(dāng)中要不斷的對(duì)程序進(jìn)行修改，由于對(duì)單片機(jī)編程掌握不是很熟練，在實(shí)際調(diào)試過(guò)程中有一定的困難。關(guān)于紅外遙控發(fā)射機(jī)接收電路設(shè)計(jì)設(shè)計(jì)資料掌握不全面，因此在實(shí)際的電路制作、調(diào)試以及相關(guān)程序的編寫(xiě)中存在一定的困難。 3、下一步的主要研究任務(wù)，具體設(shè)想與安排 繼續(xù)電路制作以及相關(guān)程序調(diào)試，得出結(jié)果。制作出實(shí)用的由單片機(jī)控制的紅外遙控發(fā)射機(jī)接收電路，即可完成遙控發(fā)射通過(guò)掃描按鍵，每按下一個(gè)鍵，即產(chǎn)生具有不同的編碼數(shù)字脈沖，這種代碼指令信號(hào)調(diào)制在40KHZ的截波上，激勵(lì)紅外光二級(jí)管產(chǎn)生具有脈沖串的紅外波，通過(guò)空間的傳送到受控機(jī)的遙控接收器。在接收過(guò)程中，紅外波信號(hào)通過(guò)接收頭轉(zhuǎn)換為40KHZ的脈沖信號(hào)，送到解碼與接口電路，從而完成相應(yīng)的遙控功能。 根據(jù)掌握的畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)的相關(guān)資料以及在調(diào)試過(guò)程中所遇問(wèn)題的解決的相關(guān)資料，著手撰寫(xiě)論文。 學(xué)生簽字： 2007年5月18日 指導(dǎo)教師的建議與要求： 指導(dǎo)教師簽字： 2007年5月18日 注：本表格同畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)（論文）一同裝訂成冊(cè)，由所在單位歸檔保存。 附件：開(kāi)題報(bào)告 紅外遙控電路設(shè)計(jì) （一）研究的現(xiàn)狀和發(fā)展趨勢(shì) 隨著當(dāng)今世界經(jīng)濟(jì)的快速發(fā)展和信息化時(shí)代的來(lái)臨，各種各樣的電子產(chǎn)品陸續(xù)出現(xiàn)在我們的生活中。而我所要設(shè)計(jì)的紅外遙控發(fā)射機(jī)就屬其中。紅外遙控廣泛應(yīng)用于家庭、銀行、證券、郵電、賓館、醫(yī)院、學(xué)校、企業(yè)、商店等相關(guān)行業(yè)的大廳，以及單位會(huì)議室、門衛(wèi)等場(chǎng)所。在多媒體教學(xué)系統(tǒng)的使用、開(kāi)發(fā)和研制中，經(jīng)常遇到同時(shí)使用多種設(shè)備，如：數(shù)字投影機(jī)、DVD、VCD、錄像機(jī)、電視機(jī)等，由于各種設(shè)備都自帶遙控器，而且不同的設(shè)備所遵循的紅外傳輸規(guī)約也不盡相同，操縱這些設(shè)備得使用多種遙控器，給使用者帶來(lái)了諸多不便。我想通過(guò)這次畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)，實(shí)做出一個(gè)用途這么廣泛的紅外遙控電路。希望在此過(guò)程中，通過(guò)實(shí)踐系統(tǒng)學(xué)習(xí)51單片機(jī)編程，深入了解紅外遙控電路的制作和設(shè)計(jì)過(guò)程等相關(guān)知識(shí)。 （二）主要任務(wù)以及主要技術(shù)指標(biāo) 紅外遙控是目前使用最廣的一種遙控手段。紅外線遙控裝置具有體積小、功耗低、功能強(qiáng)、成本低等特點(diǎn)。在家庭生活中，錄音機(jī)、音響設(shè)備、空調(diào)采電都采用了紅外遙控系統(tǒng)。利用紅外傳輸控制指令，基于和單片機(jī)的編程設(shè)計(jì)，借助單片機(jī)強(qiáng)大靈活的控制功能發(fā)出脈沖編碼，組成一個(gè)遙控系統(tǒng)。 遙控范圍：4—6米 顯示可控制的通道： 接收靈敏可靠，抗干擾能力強(qiáng) 控制用電器（燈具）電流最高為2A 紅外遙控系統(tǒng)由發(fā)射和接收兩大部分組成，系統(tǒng)采用編/解碼專用集成電路和單片機(jī)芯片來(lái)進(jìn)行控制操作。設(shè)計(jì)的電路由如下的幾個(gè)基本模塊組成：直流穩(wěn)壓電源，紅外發(fā)射電路，紅外接收電路及控制部分。 系統(tǒng)框圖如圖1所示。 按鍵部分 單片機(jī) 89C2051 發(fā)射部分 電源 3V 圖1 紅外遙控電路框圖 （a）發(fā)射電路框圖 5V 接收部分 單片機(jī) 89C51 顯示部分 控制部分 電源 9V 圖1 紅外遙控電路框圖 （b）接收電路框圖 （三）研究線路與關(guān)鍵技術(shù) 紅外遙控的特點(diǎn)是不影響周邊環(huán)境的、不干擾其他電器設(shè)備。由于其無(wú)法穿透墻壁，故不同房間的家用電器可使用通用的遙控器而不會(huì)產(chǎn)生相互干擾；編解碼容易，可進(jìn)行多路遙控。 發(fā)射電路，利用遙控發(fā)射利用鍵盤(pán)，每按下一個(gè)鍵，即產(chǎn)生具有不同的編碼數(shù)字脈沖，這種代碼指令信號(hào)調(diào)制在40KHz的載波上，激勵(lì)紅外光二極管產(chǎn)生具有脈沖串的紅外波，通過(guò)空間的傳送到受控機(jī)的遙控接收器。 在接收過(guò)程中，紅外波信號(hào)通過(guò)光學(xué)濾波器和光電二極管轉(zhuǎn)換40KHZ的電信號(hào)，此信號(hào)經(jīng)過(guò)放大，檢波，整形，解調(diào)，送到解碼與接口電路，從而完成相應(yīng)的遙控功能。 （四）、題的準(zhǔn)備情況及進(jìn)度計(jì)劃； 2006年10月15日 2006年11月9 日 第一周 第二周 第三周 第四周 第五周 第六周 第七周 第八周 下達(dá)畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)任務(wù)書(shū) 開(kāi)題報(bào)告 查閱相關(guān)資料，確定設(shè)計(jì)方案；、 設(shè)計(jì)電路 設(shè)計(jì)電路方案確定 提交中期報(bào)告、購(gòu)買電子元器件 焊接電路、軟件編程、調(diào)試電路 修改畢業(yè)論文、畢業(yè)論文預(yù)答辯 撰寫(xiě)畢業(yè)論文、提交畢業(yè)論文初稿 準(zhǔn)備答辯，對(duì)設(shè)計(jì)內(nèi)容進(jìn)行總結(jié)，弄懂各部分的原理及系統(tǒng)的 工作過(guò)程，寫(xiě)出畢業(yè)答辯的發(fā)言稿，做到心中有數(shù)，應(yīng)對(duì)畢業(yè)答辯。 參考文獻(xiàn)： 1 李振玉，姚光圻.高頻放大及功率合成技術(shù).北京:中國(guó)鐵道出版社,1985年,第一版 2 李錦春,蔡仁明.常用晶體二極管、大功率三極管手冊(cè).北京:人民郵電出版社,1981年,第一版 3 康華光,鄒壽彬.電子技術(shù)基礎(chǔ)數(shù)字部分第四版.北京:高等教育出版社,2000年,第四版 4 康華光,陳大欽.電子技術(shù)基礎(chǔ)模擬部分第四版.北京:高等教育出版社,1999年,第四版 5 楊振江,杜鐵軍,李群.流行單片機(jī)實(shí)用子程序與應(yīng)用實(shí)例.西安:西安電子科技大學(xué)出版社,2002年,第一版 6 鈴木憲次.高頻電路設(shè)計(jì)與制作.北京:科學(xué)出版社,2005年,第一版 7 吳金戌,沈慶陽(yáng),郭庭吉.8051單片機(jī)實(shí)踐與應(yīng)用.北京:清華大學(xué)出版社,2002年,第一版 8 李廣弟,朱月秀,王秀山.單片機(jī)基礎(chǔ)修訂本.北京:北京航空航天大學(xué)出版社,2001年,第二版 9 第二屆全國(guó)大學(xué)生電子設(shè)計(jì)競(jìng)賽組委會(huì).全國(guó)大學(xué)生電子設(shè)計(jì)競(jìng)賽獲獎(jiǎng)作品選編(1994-1995).北京:北京理工大學(xué)出版社,1997年,第一版 10 全國(guó)大學(xué)生電子設(shè)計(jì)競(jìng)賽組委會(huì).第四屆全國(guó)大學(xué)生電子設(shè)計(jì)競(jìng)賽獲獎(jiǎng)作品選編(1999).北京:北京理工大學(xué)出版社,2001年,第一版 11 全國(guó)大學(xué)生電子設(shè)計(jì)競(jìng)賽組委會(huì).第五屆全國(guó)大學(xué)生電子設(shè)計(jì)競(jìng)賽獲獎(jiǎng)作品選編(2001).北京:北京理工大學(xué)出版社,2003年,第一版 12 全國(guó)大學(xué)生電子設(shè)計(jì)競(jìng)賽組委會(huì).全國(guó)大學(xué)生電子設(shè)計(jì)競(jìng)賽獲獎(jiǎng)作品選編(2003).北京:北京理工大學(xué)出版社,2005年,第一版 13 高吉祥.高頻電子線路學(xué)習(xí)輔導(dǎo)及習(xí)題詳解.北京:電子工業(yè)出版社,2005年,第一版 14 謝自美.電子線路設(shè)計(jì)·實(shí)驗(yàn)·測(cè)試(第二版).武漢:華中科技大學(xué)出版社,2000年,第二版 15 譚博學(xué),苗匯靜.集成電路原理以應(yīng)用.北京:電子工業(yè)出版社,2003年,第一版 16 黃智偉.全國(guó)大學(xué)生電子設(shè)計(jì)競(jìng)賽訓(xùn)練教程.北京:電子工業(yè)出版社,2005年,第一版 17 劉征宇,韋立華.最新74系列IC特性代換手冊(cè).福建:福建科學(xué)技術(shù)出版社,2002年,第一版 18 張俊謨.單片機(jī)中級(jí)教程(原理與應(yīng)用).北京: 北京航空航天大學(xué)出版社,2000年,第一版 19 張肅文.高頻電子線路第四版.北京:高等教育出版社,2004年,第四版 20 黃永定,唐克學(xué).電子實(shí)驗(yàn)綜合實(shí)訓(xùn)教程.北京:機(jī)械工業(yè)出版社,2004年,第一版 4 Tianjin University of Technology and Education 畢 業(yè) 設(shè) 計(jì) 專 業(yè)： 應(yīng)用電子技術(shù) 班級(jí)學(xué)號(hào)： 應(yīng)電041班 - 21 學(xué)生姓名： 陳春秀 指導(dǎo)教師： 葛穎 講師 二〇〇七年 六 月 天津工程師范學(xué)院?？粕厴I(yè)設(shè)計(jì)(論文) 紅外遙控電路設(shè)計(jì) The design of circuit by infrared control 專業(yè)班級(jí)：應(yīng)電041班 學(xué)生姓名：陳春秀 指導(dǎo)教師：葛穎 講師 系 別：電子工程系 2007 年 6月 摘 要 隨著科學(xué)技術(shù)的飛速發(fā)展，信息的飛快傳播，紅外遙控在人們的生活中已經(jīng)成為不可或缺的部分。本文重點(diǎn)介紹了利用單片機(jī)AT89S52和AT89C2051實(shí)現(xiàn)紅外發(fā)射和接收電路的設(shè)計(jì)方法。發(fā)射電路通過(guò)對(duì)單片機(jī)89C2051的編程，再通過(guò)紅外二極管產(chǎn)生脈沖傳送到接收器上。接收電路通過(guò)單片機(jī)AT89S52的控制編程，實(shí)現(xiàn)對(duì)不同設(shè)備的控制。整個(gè)電路耗電省、簡(jiǎn)單可靠、操作靈活、性能價(jià)格比高，較好地滿足了現(xiàn)代生活，生產(chǎn)和科研的需要。 關(guān)鍵詞：紅外遙控,發(fā)射電路,接收電路,單片機(jī) ABSTRACT With the rapid development of technology, the rapid dissemination of information means that infrared control has become an indispensable component in people’s life. The article highlighted the design method of transmitting and receiving circuit by infrared control which use single-chip microcomputer AT89S52 and AT89C2051. After loading the program to the single-chip microcomputer 89C2051, by the transmitting circuit , the infrared diode turns out impulsion then transfer the single to the receiver. Receiving circuit use single-chip microcomputer AT89S52 which can program to control different equipments. The entire circuit is simple, reliable, flexible operation，high-performance, of high value and low cost, and it can meet the modern life, production and research need. Keywords： infrared control,transmitting circuit, receiving circuit,single-chip microcomputer 目 錄 引言…………………………………………………………………………………… 1 1 設(shè)計(jì)要求及指標(biāo)……………………………………………………………………… 2 2紅外遙控系統(tǒng)的設(shè)計(jì)………………………………………………………………… 3 3紅外收發(fā)電路的設(shè)計(jì)…………………………………………………………………4 3.1 主要芯片——閃電存儲(chǔ)型單片機(jī)AT89C51的介紹…………………………… 4 3.2 89C2051 介紹…………………………………………………………………… 6 3.3 系統(tǒng)的功能實(shí)現(xiàn)方法…………………………………………………………7 3.4 紅外發(fā)射電路………………………………………………………………… 9 3.5 紅外接收電路………………………………………………………………… 9 3.6 軟件設(shè)計(jì)……………………………………………………………………… 10 4直流穩(wěn)壓電源的設(shè)計(jì)…………………………………………………………………14 4.1 直流穩(wěn)壓電源采用單相橋式整流電路…………………………………………14 4.2 濾波電路…………………………………………………………………………15 4.3 穩(wěn)壓電路…………………………………………………………………………16 5 LED顯示電路的設(shè)計(jì)…………………………………………………………………17 6控制部分………………………………………………………………………………19 7 調(diào)試結(jié)果及其分析……………………………………………………………………21 8 結(jié)論……………………………………………………………………………………22 參考文獻(xiàn)…………………………………………………………………………………23 附錄1：發(fā)射程序………………………………………………………………………24 附錄2：接收程序………………………………………………………………………29 附錄3：紅外發(fā)射接收電路總電路圖……………………………………………………33 致謝………………………………………………………………………………………34 英文資料及中文翻譯 Radio Receiver A block diagram for a modern radio receiver is shown in Fig..2-4.The input signals to this radio are amplitude-modulated radio waves. The basic electronic circuits include: antenna ,tuner, mixer, local oscillator ,IF amplifier, audio detector, AF amplifier, loudspeaker, and power supply. Fig.2-4 A Block Diagram For Modern Radio Receiver Any antenna system capable of radiating electrical energy is also able to abstract energy from a passing radio wave. Since every wave passing the receiving antenna. Induces its own voltage in the antenna conductor, it is necessary that the receiving equipment be capable of separating the desired signal from the unwanted signals that are also inducing voltages in the antenna. This separation is made on the basis of the difference in frequency between transmitting stations and is carried out by the use of resonant circuits, which can be made to discriminate very strongly in favor of a particular frequency. It has already been pointed that, by making antenna circuit resonant to a particular frequency, the energy abstracted from radio waves of that frequency will be much greater than the energy from waves of other frequencies; this alone gives a certain amount of separation between signals. Still greater selective action can be obtained by the use of additional suitably adjusted resonant circuits located somewhere in the receiver in such a way as to reject all but the desired signal. The ability to discriminate between radio waves of different frequencies is called selectivity and the process of adjusting circuits to resonance with the frequency of a desired signal is spoken of as tuning. Although intelligible radio signals have been received from the stations thousands of miles distant, using only the energy abstracted from the radio wave by the receiving antenna much more satisfactory reception can be obtained if the received energy is amplified. This amplification may be applied to the radio-frequency currents before detection, in which case it is called radio-frequency amplification or it may be applied to the rectified currents after detection, in which case it is called audio-frequency amplification. The use of amplification makes possible the satisfactory reception of signals from waves that would otherwise be too weak to give an audible response. The process by which the signal being transmitted is reproduced from the radio-frequency currents present at the receiver is called detection, or sometimes demodulation. Where the intelligence is transmitted by varying the amplitude of the radiated wave, detection is accomplished by rectifying the radio frequency current. The rectified current thus produced varies in accordance with the signal originally modulated on the wave irradiated at the transmitter and so reproduces the desired signal. Thus, when the modulated wave is rectified, the resulting current is seen to have an average value that varies in accordance with the amplitude of the original signal. Receiver circuit are made up a of a number of stages. A stage is a single transistor connected to components which provide operating voltages and currents and also signal voltages and currents. Each stage has its input circuit from which the signal comes in and its output circuit from which the signal, usually amplified, goes out. When one stage follows another, the output circuit of the first feeds the signal to the second. And so the signal is amplified, stage by stage, until it strong enough to operate the loudspeaker. Radio Waves Radio Waves are a member of the electromagnetic of waves. They are energy-carriers which travel at the speed of light (ν), their frequency(?) and wavelength(λ) being related , as for any wave motion, by the equation ν=?* λ where ν=c=3.0*108 m/s in a vacuum (or air). If λ=300m, then ?=ν/λ=3.0*108 /(3.0*10 2)=106Hz=1MHz. The smaller λ is, the larger ?. Radio Waves can be described either by their frequency or their wavelength. But the former is more fundamental since, unlike λ (and ν ), f does not change when the waves travel form one medium to another. Radio Waves can travel form a transmitting aerial in one or more of three different ways. Surface or ground wave.. This travels along a ground, the curvature of the earth’s surface. Its range is limited mainly by the extent to which energy is absorbed form it by the ground. Poor conductors such as sand absorb more strongly that water, and the higher the frequency the greater the absorption. The range may be about 1500km at low frequencies (long wave, but much less for v. h. f.). Sky wave. This travels skywards and, if it is below a certain critical frequency (typically 30MHz), is returned to earth by the ionosphere. This consists of layers of air molecules (the D,E and F layer), stretching form about 80km above the earth to 50km, which have become positively charged through the removal of electrons by the sun’s ultraviolet radiation. On striking the earth the sky wave bounces back to the ionosphere where it is again gradually refracted and returned earthwards as if by 'reflection '. This continues until it is completely attenuated. Space wave. For v. h . f., u. h. f. and microwave signals, only the space wave, giving line-of sight transmission, is effective. A range of up to 150km is possible on earth if the transmitting aerial is on high ground and there are no intervening obstacles such as hills, buildings or trees. Oscillators Electrical oscillators are widely used in radio and television transmitters and receivers, in signal generators, oscilloscopes and computers, to produce A.C. with waveforms which may be sinusoidal, square, sawtooth etc. and with frequencies from a few hertz up to millions of hertz. Oscillatory circuit When a capacitor discharges through an inductor in a circuit of low resistance, an A.C. flows. The circuit is said to oscillate at its natural frequency which, as we will show shortly, equals, i.e. its resonant frequency f0. Electrical resonance thus occurs when the applied frequency equals the natural frequency as it does in a mechanical system.. In Fig,2-2(a) , a charged capacitor C is shown connected across a coil L.C immediately starts to discharge, current flows and a magnetic field is created which induces an e. m. f. in L. This e. m. f. opposes the current . When C is completely discharged the electrical energy originally stored in the electric field between its plates has been transferred to the magnetic field around L. By the time the magnetic field has collapsed, the energy is again stored in C. Once more C starts to discharge but current now flows in the opposite direction, creating a magnetic field of opposite polarity. When this field has decayed, C is again charged with its upper plate positive and the same cycle is repeated. In the absence of resistance in any part of the circuit , an undamped sinusoidal A.C. would be obtained. In practice , energy is gradually dissipated by resistance as heat and a damped oscillation is produced. Oscillator As the resistance of an LC circuit increases, the oscillation decay more quickly. To obtain undamped oscillations, energy has to be fed into the LC circuit in phase with its natural oscillations to compensate for the energy dissipated in the resistance of the circuit. This can be done with the help of a transistor in actual oscillators. A simple tuned oscillator is shown in Fig.2-2(b). The LC circuit is connected in the collector circuit (as the load) and oscillations start in it when the supply is switched on . The frequency of the oscillations is given by, i.e. then natural frequency of the LC circuit. The transistor merely ensures that energy is fed back at the correct instant from the battery. The current bias for the base of the transistor is obtained through R . AMPLIFIER Introduction The term amplifier is very generic. In general, the purpose of an amplifier is to take an input signal and make it stronger (or in more technically correct terms, increase its amplitude). Amplifiers find application in all kinds of electronic devices designed to perform any number of functions. There are many different types of amplifiers, each with a specific purpose in mind. For example, a radio transmitter uses an RF Amplifier (RF stands for Radio Frequency); such an amplifier is designed to amplify a signal so that it may drive an antenna. This article will focus on audio power amplifiers. Audio power amplifiers are those amplifiers which are designed to drive loudspeakers. Specifically, this discussion will focus on audio power amplifiers intended for DJ and sound reinforcement use. Much of the material presented also applies to amplifiers intended for home stereo system use. The purpose of a power amplifier, in very simple terms, is to take a signal from a source device (in a DJ system the signal typically comes from a preamplifier or signal processor) and make it suitable for driving a loudspeaker. Ideally, the ONLY thing different between the input signal and the output signal is the strength of the signal. In mathematical terms, if the input signal is denoted as S, the output of a perfect amplifier is X*S, where X is a constant (a fixed number). The "*" symbol means? Multiplied by". This being the real world, no amplifier does exactly the ideal, but many do a very good job if they are operated within their advertised power ratings. The output of all amplifiers contain additional signal components that are not present in the input signal; these additional (and unwanted)characteristics may be lumped together and are generally known as distortion. There are many types of distortion; however the two most common types are known as harmonic distortion and inter modulation distortion. In addition to the "garbage" traditionally known as distortion, all amplifiers generate a certain amount of noise (this can be heard as a background "hiss" when no music is playing). More on these later. All power amplifiers have a power rating, the units of power are called watts. The power rating of an amplifier may be stated for various load impedances; the units for load impedance are ohms. The most common load impedances are 8 ohms, 4 ohms, and 2 ohms (if you have an old vacuum tube amplifier the load impedances are more likely to be32 ohms, 16 ohms, 8 ohms, and maybe 4 ohms). The power output of a modern amplifier is usually higher when lower impedance loads (speakers) are used (but as we shall see later this is not necessarily better). In the early days, power amplifiers used devices called vacuum tubes (referred to simply as "tubes" from here on). Tubes are seldom used in amplifiers intended for DJ use (however tube amplifiers have a loyal following with musicians and hi-fi enthusiasts). Modern amplifiers almost always use transistors (instead of tubes); in the late 60's and early 70's, the term "solid state" was used (and often engraved on the front panel as a "buzz word"). The signal path in a tube amplifier undergoes similar processing as the signal in a transistor amp, however the devices and voltages are quite different. Tubes are generally "high voltage low current" devices, where transistors are the opposite ("low voltage high current"). Tube amplifiers are generally not very efficient and tend to generate a lot of heat. One of the biggest differences between a tube amplifier and a transistor amplifier is that an audio output transformer is almost always required in a tube amplifier (this is because the output impedance of a tube circuit is far too high to properly interface directly to a loudspeaker). High quality audio output transformers are difficult to design, and tend to be large, heavy, and expensive. Transistor amplifiers have numerous practical advantages as compared with tube amplifiers: they tend to be more efficient, smaller, more rugged (physically), no audio output transformer is required, and transistors do not require periodic replacement (unless you continually abuse them). Contrary to what many people believe, a well designed tube amplifier can have excellent sound (many high end hi-fi enthusiasts swear by them). Some people claim that tube amplifiers have their own particular "sound". This "sound" is a result of the way tubes behave when approaching their output limits (clipping). A few big advantages that tube amplifiers have were necessarily given up when amplifiers went to transistors. What are Amplifier Classes? The Class of an amplifier refers to the design of the circuitry within the amp. There are many classes used for audio amps. The following is brief description of some of the more common amplifier classes you may have heard of. Class A: Class A amplifiers have very low distortion (lowest distortion occurs when the volume is low) however they are very inefficient and are rarely used for high power designs. The distortion is low because the transistors in the amp are biased such that they are half "on" when the amp is idling. As a result, a lot of power is dissipated even when the amp has no music playing! Class A amps are often used for "signal" level circuits (where power is small) because they maintain low distortion. Distortion for class A amps increases as the signal approaches clipping, as the signal is reaching the limits of voltage swing for the circuit. Also, some class A amps have speakers connected via capacitive coupling. Class B: Class B amplifiers are used in low cost, low quality designs. Class B amplifiers are a lot more efficient than class A amps, however they suffer from bad distortion when the signal level is low (the distortion is called "crossover distortion"). Class B is used most often where economy of design is needed. Before the advent of IC amplifiers, class B amplifiers were common in clock radio circuits, pocket transistor radios, or other applications where quality of sound is not that critical. Class AB: Class AB is probably the most common amplifier class for home stereo and similar amplifiers. Class AB amps combine the good points of class A and B amps. They have the good efficiency of class B amps and distortion that is a lot closer to a class A amp. With such amplifiers, distortion is worst when the signal is low, and lowest when the signal is just reaching the point of clipping. Class AB amps (like class B) use pairs of transistors, both of them being biased slightly ON so that the crossover distortion (associated with Class B amps) is largely eliminated. Class C: Class C amps are never used for audio circuits. They are commonly used in RF circuits. Class C amplifiers operate the output transistor in a state that results in tremendous distortion (it would be totally unsuitable for audio reproduction). However, the RF circuits where Class C amps are used employ filtering so that the final signal is completely acceptable. Class C amps are quite efficient. Class D: The concept of a Class D amp has been around for a long time, however only fairly recently have they become commonly used. Due to improvements in the speed, power capacity and efficiency of modern semiconductor devices, applications using Class D amps have become affordable for the common person. Class D amplifiers use a very high frequency signal to modulate the incoming audio signal. Such amps are commonly used in car audio subwoofer amplifiers. Class D amplifiers have very good efficiency. Due to the high frequencies that are present in the audio signal, Class D amps used for car stereo applications are often limited to subwoofer frequencies, however designs are improving all the time. It will not be too long before a full band class D amp becomes commonplace. Other classes: There are many other classes of amplifiers, such as G, H, S, etc. Most of these are variations of the class AB design, however they result in higher efficiency for designs that require very high output levels (500W and up for example). At this time I will not go into the details of all of these other classes as I have not studied them all in detail. Suffice to be aware that they exist for now. 無(wú)線電接收機(jī) 圖2-4為無(wú)線電接收機(jī)的方框圖,輸入信號(hào)為調(diào)幅無(wú)線電波。它的基本組成包括天線、調(diào)諧回路、混頻器、本振電路、中放放大器、檢波器、音頻放大器、喇叭、電源等。 任何天線系統(tǒng)既能輻射無(wú)線電波又能接收無(wú)線電波。任何經(jīng)過(guò)天線的無(wú)線電波均能在天線中感應(yīng)電壓，因此，接收機(jī)必須能夠從天線所收到的所有信號(hào)中分離出有用信號(hào)。這個(gè)分離過(guò)程是根據(jù)發(fā)射端發(fā)射的信號(hào)頻率不同，利用調(diào)諧回路完成的。調(diào)諧回路能夠有效地從眾多頻率中選擇出某一個(gè)特定頻率。通過(guò)天線調(diào)諧回路對(duì)某一特定頻率地諧振，可以使天線從這一特定頻率中吸收的能量比從其他平頻率中吸收的能量大得多，這樣，就從某種程度上實(shí)現(xiàn)了信號(hào)的分離。進(jìn)一步的選擇作用可以通過(guò)接收機(jī)中的某些經(jīng)過(guò)適當(dāng)調(diào)諧的諧振回路實(shí)現(xiàn)，以這種方式進(jìn)一步去除了有用信號(hào)以外的其他信號(hào)。將不同頻率的無(wú)線電波加以區(qū)別的能力稱為選頻，將諧振回路的頻率調(diào)在有用信號(hào)頻率上的過(guò)程稱為調(diào)諧。 盡管接收的有用信號(hào)來(lái)自幾千里以外，但如果經(jīng)過(guò)放大，通過(guò)天線獲得的信號(hào)還是具有令人滿意的效果。放大過(guò)程可能應(yīng)用在對(duì)檢波前的射頻電流，這種情況稱為射頻放大；也可應(yīng)于檢波后，這種情況稱為音頻放大。放大器的應(yīng)用使令人滿意的接收成為可能，否則，有些太弱的信號(hào)不能獲得好的收聽(tīng)效果。 從射頻信號(hào)中重視被傳輸?shù)脑夹盘?hào)的過(guò)程稱為檢波或解調(diào)。如果有用信號(hào)在發(fā)射時(shí)是通過(guò)改變信號(hào)的振幅（即調(diào)幅），則檢波就是通過(guò)對(duì)射頻電流進(jìn)行整流完成的。整流電流隨著原始調(diào)制信號(hào)而變化，從而沖縣了原始的有用信號(hào)，這樣，已調(diào)波被整流而產(chǎn)生的電流可以被看成隨原始信號(hào)幅度變化的平均值電流。 接收機(jī)的電路由多級(jí)組成。每級(jí)由晶體管與提供工作電壓、電流和信號(hào)電壓、電流的元件相連構(gòu)成，每級(jí)都有輸入回路，它讓信號(hào)進(jìn)入；有輸出回路，它讓通常是放大后的信號(hào)輸出。當(dāng)一級(jí)接一級(jí)時(shí)，第一級(jí)的輸出回路將信號(hào)饋送給第二級(jí)，信號(hào)經(jīng)過(guò)逐級(jí)放大，直到足以推動(dòng)揚(yáng)聲器。 無(wú)線電波 無(wú)線電波是電磁波大家族中的一員，它們攜帶能量且以光速在空氣中傳播，它們的頻率與波長(zhǎng)相關(guān)，即任何電磁波傳播時(shí)，有 ν=?* λ 這里，ν=c=3.0*108 m/s（在空氣中），如果λ=300m,則?=ν/λ=3.0*108 /(3.0*10 2)=106Hz.=1MHz。波長(zhǎng)λ越小，頻率?越高。 無(wú)線電波既能用頻率又能用波長(zhǎng)來(lái)描述。但前者更常用，因?yàn)轭l率不像速度，不會(huì)因傳播媒介的改變而變化。 從天線電波輻射出去的無(wú)線電波通常以三種形式傳播。 （a）地表波或地波。這種波按地球表面的曲度，沿地表面?zhèn)鞑ァＫ膫鞑シ秶邢?，其能量易被地表面吸收。惡劣的地形條件如沙漠比水面更易吸收能量。頻率越高，能量被吸收得越多。低頻波（長(zhǎng)波）的傳播范圍約為1500千米。高頻波的查范圍要小得多。 （b）天波。沿天空傳播，若低于某個(gè)關(guān)鍵頻率（如30MHZ），會(huì)被電離層反射回地面。電離層由空氣分子層組成（包括D、E、F層），位于地球上方80千米到500千米處，它由于太陽(yáng)紫外線的輻射而失去電子，因而帶正電荷。反射回地面的天波又從地面反射回電離層，并再次被反射回地面，如此反復(fù)多次直到能量完成衰減。 (c) 空間波。甚高頻、超高頻和微波只能以空間波的形式才能有效 傳播，空間波也稱視距傳播。如果天線架設(shè)很高且沒(méi)有障礙阻隔，如高山、建筑物、大樹(shù)等，空間波的傳播距離可達(dá)150千米 振蕩器 電子振蕩器廣泛用于廣播、電視發(fā)射機(jī)、接收機(jī)、信號(hào)發(fā)生器、示波器及計(jì)算機(jī)中，它被用來(lái)產(chǎn)生幾赫茲到幾百萬(wàn)赫茲的各種波形，如正弦波、方波、鋸齒波等。 振蕩電路 在一個(gè)低阻的RC 回路中，電容通過(guò)電感放電，回路中有交流電流流過(guò)，則稱回路發(fā)生了振蕩，其振蕩頻率等于，正好等于它的諧振頻率 f0 。當(dāng)外加信號(hào)頻率等于回路的固有振蕩頻率時(shí)，回路發(fā)生諧振，這也和機(jī)械振動(dòng)系統(tǒng)相似。 再圖2-1（a）中，一個(gè)充電的電容和一個(gè)電感線圈相連，電容立刻開(kāi)始放電，電流流過(guò)電感并在其中產(chǎn)生磁場(chǎng)和感應(yīng)電動(dòng)勢(shì)，這個(gè)感應(yīng)電動(dòng)勢(shì)與電流相反。當(dāng)電容放電完成以后，兩金屬片之間電場(chǎng)中儲(chǔ)存的電場(chǎng)能全部轉(zhuǎn)變成了電感中的電磁能。 然后，電感對(duì)電容反充電，電場(chǎng)能重新儲(chǔ)存在電容中。當(dāng)電容再次放電，回路電流反相，再電感中產(chǎn)生極性相反的電磁場(chǎng)。然后電感再次放電，電容再次充電，電流再次反相，這個(gè)過(guò)程不斷重復(fù)。 若電路中無(wú)電阻，則可獲得無(wú)衰減的正弦交流電流。實(shí)際上，由于回路損耗電阻的存在，能量會(huì)逐漸以熱能的形式消耗掉，產(chǎn)生的 是一個(gè)逐漸衰減的振蕩波形。 振蕩器 當(dāng)振蕩電路的電阻增加，振蕩迅速衰減。為了獲得不衰減的振蕩信號(hào)，必須對(duì)LC回路饋入能量，以補(bǔ)充因回路電阻而損耗的能量，這在實(shí)用振蕩電路中是通過(guò)晶體管完成的。 一個(gè)簡(jiǎn)單的調(diào)諧振蕩器如圖2-2（b）所示，LC回路接在晶體管的集電極回路（作為負(fù)載），當(dāng)開(kāi)關(guān)合上時(shí)，振蕩開(kāi)始，振蕩頻率由LC回路的諧振頻率決定。晶體管只是將電源的能量饋給振蕩回路以保證正常的狀態(tài)，晶體管的基極偏置電流由電阻R獲得。 放大器 這種放大器是非常常見(jiàn)的，通常來(lái)說(shuō)，這個(gè)放大器的目的是用來(lái)接收一個(gè)信號(hào)并使之放大，放大器常常應(yīng)用在各種電子設(shè)備中，用來(lái)執(zhí)行各種功能。各種不同類型的放大器有不同的用途。例如，音頻傳送使用RF放大器，（RF表示音頻）；這樣的放大器用來(lái)放大從天線接收來(lái)的信號(hào)，這篇文章將著重介紹音頻放大器，這種音頻放大器來(lái)驅(qū)動(dòng)揚(yáng)聲器。特殊的，下面討論的是為DJ和音頻放大，大部分的放大器應(yīng)用于家庭立體聲系統(tǒng)。 簡(jiǎn)單來(lái)說(shuō)，放大器的目的是從一個(gè)信號(hào)源得到一個(gè)信號(hào)并放大能使它去驅(qū)動(dòng)揚(yáng)聲器，唯一不同的是：輸出信號(hào)是輸入信號(hào)的放大。從數(shù)學(xué)角度來(lái)說(shuō)，如果輸入信號(hào)定義為S，則輸出信號(hào)為X*S，X為放大系數(shù)常量。*代表乘運(yùn)算。 在現(xiàn)實(shí)當(dāng)中，沒(méi)有一種放大器是理想的，在先進(jìn)的設(shè)備中它們能更好的工作。放大器的輸出包含一些輸入信號(hào)沒(méi)有的訊雜信號(hào)，這種訊雜信號(hào)被集中到一塊現(xiàn)象統(tǒng)稱為失真。------ 失真的類型很多，最常見(jiàn)的兩種失真是調(diào)諧失真和交調(diào)失真，額外的無(wú)用信號(hào)通常被成為失真，所有的放大器都能產(chǎn)生一定量的噪音，更詳細(xì)的內(nèi)容將在以后介紹。 放大器 所有放大器都有一定放大系數(shù)，它的基本單位被稱為瓦特。放大器的系數(shù)決定了它的負(fù)載阻抗，它的基本單位被稱為歐姆。常用的阻抗有8歐姆、4歐姆、2歐姆，當(dāng)?shù)妥杩关?fù)載被使用時(shí)放大器的放大系數(shù)會(huì)更高。 在早期，放大器設(shè)備是電子管來(lái)實(shí)現(xiàn)的，電子管很少被使用在DJ中，現(xiàn)代放大器都使用的是晶體管，晶體管和真空放大器在信號(hào)傳輸過(guò)程中經(jīng)歷了相似的過(guò)程，但他們工作環(huán)境有一些區(qū)別，電子管一般是高壓低流，而晶體管則相反，電子管的效率不是很高，并且會(huì)發(fā)熱，電子管放大器與晶體管放大器的一個(gè)最大的區(qū)別是真空放大器在音頻輸出上要求更高，高品質(zhì)的音頻傳輸器是很難設(shè)計(jì)的，設(shè)計(jì)起來(lái)更困難，更昂貴。晶體管放大器比電子管放大器更有實(shí)用價(jià)值，因?yàn)樗哂懈咝А⑿《陀?，沒(méi)有音頻的傳輸是必須的，晶體管不需要周期性替換，與人們所通常認(rèn)為不同的是，好的電子管放大器能產(chǎn)生高品質(zhì)的聲音，有些人認(rèn)為電子管有他們獨(dú)特的“聲音”。這個(gè)“聲音”是當(dāng)他們達(dá)到極限時(shí)產(chǎn)生的結(jié)果。晶體管放大器代替了電子管放大器是有很大益處的。 放大器的種類 放大器的種類通常是按照放大電路來(lái)設(shè)計(jì)的，在音頻放大有許多種類，下面簡(jiǎn)要介紹常用放大器的種類 A類 A類具有非常低的失真，盡管他們效率非常低，很少用在高效率放大器中。它的失真很低是因?yàn)楫?dāng)空載時(shí)放大器工作在放大區(qū)的中點(diǎn)，結(jié)果，許多能量在無(wú)信號(hào)輸入時(shí)已經(jīng)被消耗掉了，因?yàn)锳類放大器具有低失真的特性，所以常常當(dāng)在放大器的前級(jí)，作為在電路中信號(hào)到達(dá)電壓擺動(dòng)的極限時(shí)，A類放大器的失真產(chǎn)生了消波，A類放大器是通過(guò)電容偶合連接揚(yáng)聲器的。 B類 B類放大器通常被使用在廉價(jià)、低品質(zhì)設(shè)計(jì)中，比起A類放大器，B類放大器有更高的效率，然而，當(dāng)信號(hào)弱時(shí)會(huì)產(chǎn)生交迭失真，B類常常用在經(jīng)濟(jì)型電路中。在IC放大器出現(xiàn)之前，B類放大器一般用在收音機(jī)電路，便攜式收音機(jī)以及對(duì)音質(zhì)要求不高的電路中。 AB類 AB類在家庭立體聲和相似放大器最常用的一種放大器，AB類放大器綜合了A類B類放大器的優(yōu)點(diǎn)。它具有B類放大器的高效率和A類放大器的低失真?？朔薆類弱信號(hào)失真和A類的削波失真。AB類放大器使用的是一副晶體管，它都處于低導(dǎo)通狀態(tài)，這樣更大消除了交迭失真。 C類 C類放大器常常不用在音頻電路中。她們通常用在RF電路中。C類放大器工作在具有大失真的晶體管電路中，C類放大器使用在帶濾波的RF電路從而使信號(hào)在最后完整的接收，C類放大器的效率是很高的。 D類 D類放大器的概念已經(jīng)出現(xiàn)很長(zhǎng)時(shí)間了，盡管到目前才被普遍使用。在快速發(fā)展以后，隨著高容量、高效率現(xiàn)代半導(dǎo)體設(shè)備的出現(xiàn)，普通人使用D類放大器也成為了現(xiàn)實(shí)。D類放大器可應(yīng)用與把音頻信號(hào)調(diào)制到高頻信號(hào)，這種放大器通常用在輔助低音頻信號(hào)，這種D類放大器具有很好的效率。使