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外文資料翻譯 資料來源：《模具設(shè)計與制造專業(yè)英語》 文章名：Chapter 3 Casting Dies 書刊名：《English for Die & Mould Design and Manufacturing》 作 者：劉建雄 王家惠 廖丕博 主編 出版社：北京大學出版社，2002 章 節(jié)：Chapter 3 Casting Dies 頁 碼：P51~P60 文章譯名： 鑄造模具  Chapter 3 Casting Dies 3.1 Casting The first castings were made during the period 4000~3000 B.C., using stone and metal molds for casting copper. Various casting processes have been developed over a long period of time, each with its own characteristics and applications, to meet specific engineering and service requirements. Many parts and components are made by casting, including cameras, carburetors, engine blocks, crankshafts, automotive components, agricultural and railroad equipment, pipes and plumbing fixtures, power tools, gun barrels, frying pans, and very large components for hydraulic turbines. Casting can be done in several ways. The two major ones are sand casting, in which the molds used are disposable after each cycle, and die casting, or permanent molding, in which the same metallic die is used thousands or even millions of times. Both types of molds have three common features. They both have a “plumbing” system to channel molten alloy into the mold cavity. These channels are called sprues, runners, and gates (Fig. 3-1). Molds may be modified by cores which form holes and undercuts or inserts that become an integral part of the casting. Inserts strengthen and reduce friction, and they may be more machinable than the surrounding metal. For example, a steel shaft when properly inserted into a die cavity results in an assembled aluminum step gear after the shot. After pouring or injection, the resulting castings require subsequent operations such trim-ming, inspection, grinding, and repairs to a greater or lesser extent prior to shipping. Premium-quality castings from alloys of aluminum or steel require x-ray soundness that will be acceptable by the customer. Certain special casting processes are precision-investment casting, low-pressure casting, and centrifugal casting. 20 3.2 Sand Casting The traditional method of casting metals is in sand molds and has been used for millennia. Simply stated, sand casting consists of (a) placing a pattern having the shape of the desired casting in sand to make an imprint, (b) incorporating a gating system, (c) filling the resulting cavity with molten metal, (d) allowing the metal to cool until it solidifies, (e) breaking away the sand mold, and (f) removing the casting (Fig. 3-2). The production steps for a typical sand-casting operation are shown in Fig. 3-3. Although the origins of sand casting date to ancient times, it is still the most prevalent form of casting. In the United States alone, about 15 million tons of metal are cast by this method each year. Open riser Vent Pouring basin (cup) Cope Blind Flask riser Sprue Core (sand) Sand Parting line Drag  Mold cavity  Choke Runner  Gate  Sand Fig. 3-2 Schematic illustration of a sand mold 3.2.1 Sands Most sand casting operations use silica sand (SiO2), which is the product of the dis- integration of rocks over extremely long periods of time. Sand is inexpensive and is suitable as mold material because of its resistance to high temperatures. There are two general types of sand: naturally bonded (bank sand) and synthetic (lake sand). Because its composition can be controlled more accurately, synthetic sand is preferred by most foundries. Several factors are important in the selection of sand for molds. Sand having fine, round grains can be closely packed and forms a smooth mold surface. Although fine-grained sand enhances mold strength, the fine grains also lower mold permeability. Good permeability of molds and cores allows gases and steam evolved during casting to escape easily. 3.2.2 Types of Sand Molds Sand molds are characterized by the types of sand that comprise them and by the methods used to produce them. There are three basic types of sand molds: greensand, cold-box, and no-bake molds. The most common mold material is green molding sand, which is a mixture of sand, clay, and water. The term “green” refers to the fact that the sand in the mold is moist or damp while the metal is being poured into it. Greensand molding is the least expensive method of making molds. In the skin-dried method, the mold surfaces are dried, either by storing the mold in air or by drying it with torches. These molds are generally used for large castings because of their higher strength. Sand molds are also oven dried (baked) prior to pouring the molten metal; they are stronger than greensand molds and impart better dimensional accuracy and surface finish to the casting. However, this method has drawbacks: distortion of the mold is greater; the castings are more susceptible to hot tearing because of the lower collapsibility of the mold; and the production rate is slower because of the drying time required. In the cold-box mold process, various organic and inorganic binders are blended into the sand to bond the grains chemically for greater strength. These molds are dimensionally more accurate than greensand molds but are more expensive. In the no-bake mold process, a synthetic liquid resin is mixed with the sand; the mixture hardens at room temperature. Because bonding of the mold in this and in the cold-box process takes place without heat, they are called cold-setting processes. The following are the major components of sand molds (Fig. 3-2): (1) The mold itself, which is supported by a flask. Two-piece molds consist of a cope on top and a drag on the bottom. The seam between them is the parting line. When more than two pieces are used, the additional parts are called cheeks. (2) A pouring basin or pouring cup, into which the molten metal is poured. (3) A sprue, through which the molten metal flows downward. (4) The runner system, which has channels that carry the molten metal from the sprue to the mold cavity. Gates are the inlets into the mold cavity. (5) Risers, which supply additional metal to the casting as it shrinks during solidification. Fig. 3-2 shows two different types of risers: a blind riser and an open riser. (6) Cores, which are inserts made from sand. They are placed in the mold to form hollow regions or otherwise define the interior surface of the casting. Cores are also used on the outside of the casting to form features such as lettering on the surface of a casting or deep external pockets. (7) Vents, which are placed in molds to carry off gases produced when the molten metal comes into contact with the sand in the mold and core. They also exhaust air from the mold cavity as the molten metal flows into the mold. 3.2.3 Patterns Patterns are used to mold the sand mixture into the shape of the casting. They may be made of wood, plastic, or metal. The selection of a pattern material depends on the size and shape of the casting, the dimensional accuracy, the quantity of castings required, and the molding process. Because patterns are used repeatedly to make molds, the strength and durability of the material selected for patterns must reflect thenumber of castings that the mold will produce. They may be made of a combination of materials to reduce wear in critical regions. Patterns are usually coated with a parting agent to facilitate their removal from the molds. Patterns can be designed with a variety of features to fit application and economic requirements. One-piece patterns, also called loose or solid patterns, are generally used for simpler shapes and low-quantity production. They are generally made of wood and are inexpensive. Split patterns are two-piece patterns made such that each part forms a portion of the cavity for the casting; in this way, castings with complicated shapes can be produced. Match-plate patterns are a popular type of mounted pattern in which two-piece patterns are constructed by securing each half of one or more split patterns to the opposite sides of a single plate (Fig.3-4). In such constructions, the gating system can be mounted on the drag side of the pattern. This type of pattern is used most often in conjunction with molding machines and large production runs to produce smaller castings. Cope side Plate Drag side Fig. 3-4 A typical metal match-plate pattern used in sand casting  An important recent development is the application of rapid prototyping to mold and pattern making. In sand casting, for example, a pattern can be fabricated in a rapid prototyping machine and fastened to a backing plate at a fraction of the time and cost of machining a pattern. There are several rapid prototyping techniques with which these tools can be produced quickly. Pattern design is a crucial aspect of the total casting operation. The design should provide for metal shrinkage, case of removal from the sand mold by means of a taper or draft (Fig. 3-5), and proper metal flow in the mold cavity. Pattern Draft angle Damage Flask Sand mold Poor Good Fig. 3-5 Taper on patterns for case of removal from the sand mold 3.2.4 Cores For castings with internal cavities or passages, such as those found in an automotive engine block or a valve body, cores are utilized. Cores are placed in the mold cavity before casting to form the interior surfaces of the casting and are removed from the finished part during shakeout and further processing. Like molds, cores must possess strength, permeability, ability to withstand heat, and collapsibility; therefore, cores are made of sand aggregates. The core is anchored by core prints. These are recesses that are added to the pattern to support the core and to provide vents for the escape of gases (Fig. 3-6). A common problem with cores is that for some casting requirements, as in the case where a recess is required, they may lack sufficient structural support in the cavity. To keep the core from shifting, metal supports (chaplets) may be used to anchor the core in place (Fig. 3-6).  Chaplet Core  Core  Core prints Cavity Parting line Mold  Cavity  Core prints Fig. 3-6 Examples of sand cores showing core prints and chaplets to support cores Cores are generally made in a manner similar to that used in making molds; the majority are made with shell, no-bake, or cold-box processes. Cores are formed in core boxes, which are used in much the same way that patterns are used to form sand molds. The sand can be packed into the boxes with sweeps, or blown into the box by compressed air from core blowers. The latter have the advantages of producing uniform cores and operating at very high production rates. 3.2.5 Sand-Molding Machines The oldest known method of molding, which is still used for simple castings, is to compact the sand by hand hammering (tamping) or ramming it around the pattern. For most operations, however, the sand mixture is compacted around the pattern by molding machines (Fig.3-7). These machines eliminate arduous labor, offer high-quality casting by improving the application and distribution of forces, manipulate the mold in a carefully controlled manner, and increase production rate. Squeeze head (a) (c)  Equalizing pistons  Pressurized air  (b) (d) Diaphragm Hydraulic cylinder Fig. 3-7 Various designs of squeeze heads for mold making (a) conventional flat head (b) profile head (c) equalizing squeeze pistons (d) flexible diaphragm Mechanization of the molding process can be further assisted by jolting the assembly. The flask, molding sand, and pattern are first placed on a pattern plate mounted on an anvil, and then jolted upward by air pressure at rapid intervals. The inertial forces compact the sand around the pattern. Jolting produces the highest compaction at the horizontal parting line, whereas in squeezing, compaction is highest at the squeezing head (Fig. 3-7). Thus, more uniform com- paction can be obtained by combining squeezing and jolting. In vertical flaskless molding, the halves of the pattern form a vertical chamber wall against which sand is blown and compacted (Fig. 3-8). Then, the mold haves are packed horizontally, with the parting line oriented vertically and moved along a pouring conveyor. This operation is simple and eliminates the need to handle flasks, allowing for very high production rates, particularly when other aspects of the operation (such as coring and pouring) are automated. Ram force  Box  Sand  Pattern Metal poured here (a) (b) Fig. 3-8 Vertical flaskless molding (a) sand is squeezed between two halves of the pattern (b) assembled molds pass along an assembly line for pouring Sandslingers fill the flask uniformly with sand under high-pressure stream. They are used to fill large flasks and are typically operated by machine. An impeller in the machine throws sand from its blades or cups at such high speeds that the machine not only places the sand but also rams it appropriately. In impact molding, the sand is compacted by controlled explosion or instantaneous release of compressed gases. This method produces molds with uniform strength and good permeability. In vacuum molding, also known as the “V” process, the pattern is covered tightly by a thin sheet of plastic. A flask is placed over the coated pattern and is filled with dry binderless sand. A second sheet of plastic is then placed on top of the sand, and a vacuum action hardens the sand so that the pattern can be withdrawn. Both halves of the mold are made this way and assembled. During pouring, the mold remains under a vacuum but the casting cavity does not. When the metal has solidified, the vacuum is turned off and the sand falls away, releasing the casting. Vacuum molding produces castings with high-quality detail and dimensional accuracy. It is especially well suited for large, relatively flat castings. 3.2.6 The Sand Casting Operation After the mold has been shaped and the cores have been placed in position, the two halves (cope and drag) are closed, clamped, and weighted down. They are weighted to prevent the separation of the mold sections under the pressure exerted when the molten metal is poured into the mold cavity. The design of the gating system is important for proper delivery of the molten metal into the mold cavity. As described, turbulence must be minimized, air and gases must be allowed to escape by such means as vents, and proper temperature gradients must be established and maintained to minimize shrinkage and porosity. The design of risers is also important in order to supply the necessary molten metal during solidification of the casting. The pouring basin may also serve as a riser. A complete sequence of operations in sand casting is shown in Fig. 3-9. In Fig. 3-9(a), a mechanical drawing of the part is used to generate a design for the pattern. Considerations such as part shrinkage and draft must be built into the drawing. In (b)~(c), patterns have been mounted on plates equipped with pins for alignment. Note the presence of core prints designed to hold the core in place. In (d)~(e), core boxes produce core halves, which are pasted together. The cores will be used to produce the hollow area of the part shown in (a). In (f), the cope half of the mold is assembled by securing the cope pattern plate to the flask with aligning pins, and attaching inserts to form the sprue and risers. In (g), the flask is rammed with sand and the plate and inserts are removed. In (h), the drag half is produced in a similar manner, with the pattern inserted. A bottom board is placed below the drag and aligned with pins. In (i), the pattern, flask, and bottom board are inverted, and the pattern is withdrawn, leaving the appropriate imprint. In (j), the core is set in place within the drag cavity. In (k), the mold is closed by placing the cope on top of the drag and securing the assembly with pins. The flasks are then subjected to pressure to counteract buoyant forces in the liquid, which might lift the cope. In (l), after the metal solidifies, the casting is removed from the mold. In (m), the sprue and risers are cut off and recycled, and the casting is cleaned, inspected, and heat treated (when necessary). After solidification, the casting is shaken out of its mold, and the sand and oxide layers adhering to the casting are removed by vibration (using a shaker) or by sand blasting. Ferrous castings are also cleaned by blasting with steel shot (shot blasting) or grit. The risers and gates are cut off by oxyfuel-gas cutting, sawing, shearing, and abrasive wheels, or they are trimmed in dies. Gates and risers on steel castings are also removed with air carbon-arc or powder-injection torches. Castings may be cleaned by electrochemical means or by pickling with chemicals to remove surface oxides. (a) (b) (c) Core prints Mechanical drawing of part (d) (e) Core boxes  Core prints Cope pattern plate Core halves pasted together  (f) Flask  Gate Drag pattern plate Risers Sprue Cope ready for sand (g) (h) (i) Cope after ramming with sand and removing pattern, sprue, and risers  Drag ready for sand  Drag after removing pattern (j) Cope Drag (k) (l) (m) Drag with core set in place Closing pins  Cope and drag assembled ready for pouring  Casting as removed from mold; heat treated  Casting ready for shipment Fig. 3-9 Schematic illustration of the sequence of operations for sand casting Almost all commercially-used metals can be sand cast. The surface finish obtained is largely a function of the materials used in making the mold. Dimensional accuracy is not as good as that of other casting processes. However, intricate shapes can be cast by this process, such as cast-iron engine blocks and very large propellers for ocean liners. Sand casting can be economical for relatively small production runs, and equipment costs are generally low. The surface of castings is important in subsequent machining operations, because machi- nability can be adversely affected if the castings are not cleaned properly and sand particles remain on the surface. If regions of the casting have not formed properly or have formed incompletely, the defects may be repaired by filling them with weld metal. Sand-mold castings generally have rough, grainy surfaces, depending on the quality of the mold and the materials used. The casting may subsequently be heat-treated to improve certain properties needed for its intended service use; these processes are particularly important for steel castings. Finishing operations may involve machining straightening, or forging with dies to obtain final dimensions. Minor surface imperfections may also be filled with a metal-filled epoxy, especially for cast-iron castings because they are difficult to weld. Inspection is an important final step and is carried out to ensure that the casting meets all design and quality control requirements. 第三章鑄造模具 3.1 鑄造 第一批鑄件是在公元前4000年至公元前3000年制造的。，用石頭和金屬鑄模鑄造銅。各種鑄造工藝在很長一段時間內(nèi)都得到了發(fā)展，每一個都有其自身的特點和應(yīng)用，以滿足特定的工程和服務(wù)要求。許多零部件是由鑄造制造的，包括照相機、化油器、發(fā)動機塊、曲軸、汽車零部件、農(nóng)業(yè)和鐵路設(shè)備、管道和管道裝置、電動工具、槍管、平底鍋、以及用于水力渦輪的非常大的部件。 可以通過幾種方式進行轉(zhuǎn)換。兩個主要的是砂型鑄造，在每個周期后，模具使用的模具是一次性的，壓鑄，或永久成型，同樣的金屬模具使用數(shù)千甚至數(shù)百萬次。這兩種模具都有三個共同特點。他們都有一個“管道”系統(tǒng)將熔融合金導(dǎo)入模具型腔。這些通道叫做云杉、跑步者和大門(圖3-1)。模具可由形成孔洞和襯墊或襯墊的巖心進行修改，成為鑄件的組成部分。插入加強和減少摩擦，它們可能比周圍的金屬更機械。例如，當一個鋼軸被適當?shù)夭迦氲侥＞咝颓粫r，就會產(chǎn)生一個裝配好的鋁制的步進齒輪。 澆注或注入后，所產(chǎn)生的鑄件需要后續(xù)的操作，如在運輸之前，在更大或更小的程度上進行這樣的磨光、檢查、磨削和修理。鋁或鋼合金的優(yōu)質(zhì)鑄件需要x射線的可靠性，這是客戶所能接受的。 某些特殊的鑄造工藝是精密鑄造、低壓鑄造和離心鑄造。 3.2 型鑄造 傳統(tǒng)的鑄造金屬的方法是在砂模具中，并且已經(jīng)使用了幾千年。簡單的說,砂鑄造包括(a)放置一個模式在砂所需的鑄件的形狀,使一個印記,(b)將澆注系統(tǒng),(c)填充結(jié)果與熔融金屬腔,(d)允許金屬冷卻,直到凝固,(e)脫離砂型,(f)消除鑄造(圖3 -