樹(shù)枝粉碎機(jī)機(jī)身及輸送設(shè)備設(shè)計(jì)

樹(shù)枝粉碎機(jī)機(jī)身及輸送設(shè)備設(shè)計(jì),樹(shù)枝粉碎機(jī)機(jī)身及輸送設(shè)備設(shè)計(jì),樹(shù)枝,粉碎機(jī),機(jī)身,輸送,設(shè)備,裝備,設(shè)計(jì) Received 28 March 2007; received in revised form 25 June 2007; accepted 26 June 2007 Fretting fatigue involves early crack growth up to a few hundreds of microns. Meanwhile, the propagation phase is the follow- on growth of cracks until structural failure. In the initiation phase, the cracks are often found to develop at an * Corresponding author. E-mail address: boyangfit.edu (B. Yang). Available online at Engineering Fracture Mechanics 75 (2008) 15071515 0013-7944/$ - see front matter C211 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 1. Introduction Severe stress state emerges in the contact zone between two mating components, causing localized plastic deformation and damage. If loading is cyclic, it becomes more hazardous, leading to crack initiation and growth 4,7,13,16,22,23. This damage process including crack development is referred to as fretting fatigue. It has been practically divided into two phases, namely, initiation and propagation phases, depending upon the size of a crack that can be detected by available nondestructive evaluation techniques. The initiation phase Available online 15 August 2007 Abstract Motivated by experimental observations, we carry out a numerical analysis of the two-stage crack growth under fretting fatigue by using an ecient and accurate boundary element method. To start with, the variation of stress field during a loading cycle is analyzed. Various values of friction coecient in the contact zone are considered, which is shown to con- siderably aect the stress field. Then, by assuming crack initiation to occur in the shear mode, a surface-breaking crack is introduced to the specimen at the location of highest shear-stress amplitude. The crack-tip stress intensity factors (SIFs) are calculated for various crack lengths and at various crack angles ranging from 25C176 to 45C176 about the contact surface. It is shown that, for a loading ratio of 0.5, the cyclic mode-II SIF amplitude decreases with increasing crack length, whilst its mean value increases. It suggests that the (first-stage) shear crack would sooner or later become dormant, or switch to another mode that can provide continuous support of growth. Then, the first-stage shear crack is manually kinked into a second-stage opening crack, and the follow-on driving force is analyzed. It is shown that the kinking event is only favored after the first-stage crack has grown to a certain length. The present study thus provides insights in the mechanics of two- stage crack growth that has been frequently observed in a typical dovetail joint under fretting fatigue. It also suggests an improved experimental setup to quantitatively investigate the fretting fatigue in dovetail joints. C211 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. Keywords: Boundary element method; Contact mechanics; Crack initiation; Crack kinking; Dovetail joints; Fracture mechanics; Friction; Mechanics of two-stage crack growth in fretting fatigue B. Yang a, * , S. Mall b a Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Florida Institute of Technology, Melbourne, FL 32901, United States b Department of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Air Force Institute of Technology, Wright-Patterson AFB, Dayton, OH 45433, United States doi:10.1016/j.engfracmech.2007.06.009 inclination from the contact surface. Then, they kink and eventually propagate normal to the bulk tension, exhibiting a typical two-stage crack initiation and growth pattern 4,10,19,21. To characterize the fretting-fatigue crack initiation, Fellows et al. 5 utilized the shear-stress amplitude as the key parameter in a stress-based approach. Lykins et al. 11,12 later showed through a combined numerical and experimental analysis with cylinder-on-flat and flat-on-flat contact configurations that the sites of fretting- fatigue crack initiation can indeed be reasonably explained with this parameter. Furthermore, Yang and Mall 25 applied the crack analogue model/fracture-mechanics approach 6 to study the driving forces for initia- tion of mode-I and mode-II cracks at the edge of contact with friction coecient in the contact zone as the key parameter. By comparing with experimental observations, they showed that the fretting-fatigue crack initia- tion was in the shear mode. On the other hand, the observed kinking of an initiated fretting-fatigue crack suggests a transition of frac- ture mechanism from a shear to an opening mode. A few fracture-mechanics-based approaches have been uti- initiation 5,9,18,22. These critical-plane-based approaches could be improved if a two-stage crack initiation 1508 B. Yang, S. Mall / Engineering Fracture Mechanics 75 (2008) 15071515 and early growth consideration is included. This has motivated the present study. In the present work, we numerically simulate the two-stage cracking process in fretting fatigue guided by experimental observations. To start with, the variation of stress field during a typical loading cycle is analyzed. Various values of friction coecient in the contact zone are examined, which is shown to considerably aect the stress field. Then, a surface-breaking shear-mode crack is introduced at the location of highest shear-stress amplitude in the contact zone. The crack-tip stress intensity factor (SIF) is calculated for various crack lengths and various crack orientation angles ranging from 25C176 to 45C176 about the contact surface. It is then manually kinked into an opening crack based on the criterion of maximum tangential-stress amplitude. This parametric study suggests that the crack should become dormant, or switch from the shear to an opening mode by kink- ing, after a certain distance of propagation. This is consistent with the experimental observations. In Section 2, the nonlinear problem of frictional contact and crack is formulated. It is solved by applying the boundary ele- ment (BE) method 1,24. In Section 3, the stress field in the contact zone before crack initiation is analyzed for various fretting-fatigue parameters including the loading ratio and the friction coecient. In Section 4, the two-stage process of fretting-fatigue crack initiation and early growth is analyzed. In Section 5, conclusions are drawn. 2. Problem formulation One of the major concerns and considerations in the design of a dovetail joint, for example, used to connect a blade to a disk in gas turbine engines (Fig. 1a), is fretting fatigue. When a cyclic loading is applied, the force lized to analyze fretting-fatigue crack initiation and growth, without separating them, under either opening- mode or mixed-mode condition along a prescribed path 2,14,15. However, a parametric study of the two- stage cracking process in fretting fatigue has not been reported in the literature. Meanwhile, a number of crit- ical plane-based approaches without any consideration of fracture-mechanics principles have been proposed to predict the crack-initiation life based on the stress/strain amplitude at the contact surface before the crack Fig. 1. (a) A typical dovetail joint connecting a blade and a disk in a turbine engine. (b) A selected window area of (a) upon rotation. acting in the contact zone between the connected parts (blade and disk) varies in both normal and tangential components. The two components are coupled in a way determined by the geometry of the joint. However, it was often experimentally studied with a fretting test setup, as well as analytically, where the normal force com- ponent (or normal displacement component) is held constant while the tangential force component is varied (3,4,9,16,17, among many others). The realistic geometry of a dovetail joint has also been taken into account in several fretting-fatigue studies 8,18,20. In the present study, we consider a configuration where the normal and tangential loading components are coupled, as shown in Fig. 2. It represents more closely the realistic con- dition in a dovetail joint, as shown in Fig. 1b, a part of Fig. 1a. Furthermore, the setup may be realized in a laboratory as easily as the previous ones. The setup shown in Fig. 2 consists of two parts: a specimen, and a component to apply fretting loads to the specimen through a pad. In our simulation, the specimen and loading component are taken to be the same material, and it is isotropic and linearly elastic. The specimen is restrained by a smooth sliding guide of a rigid wall along its bottom and right boundaries. The loading component is subjected to a normal traction r along its left boundary, and is allowed to slide smoothly along the top boundary against a rigid wall. The loading component is initially in touch, through a cylindrical pad, with the flat top surface of specimen, but without pre-stress. Because of the wedge shape of the loading component, the pad and the specimen top surface come in contact over a finite zone when r is applied. The structure is free of traction otherwise. The boundary con- ditions and other details are shown schematically in Fig. 2. The loading direction, b, may be adjusted for desired fitting tightness between the loading component and the specimen, which closely represent the parts and the law, B. Yang, S. Mall / Engineering Fracture Mechanics 75 (2008) 15071515 1509 s fp _w j _wj ; 1 where s and p are the tangential and normal components of traction, f is the friction coecient, _w is the time rate of change of relative displacement between the surfaces in contact, and j _wj is its magnitude. The traction components, s and p are defined with the specimen. -1.2 -0.8 -0.4 0 0.4 0.8 -1.2 -0.8 -0.4 0 0.4 0.8 -0.01 0 0.01 -0.8 -0.4 0 0.4 0.8 (t) x/L y/L Trailing edge of contact Crack Specimen Loading component Fig. 2. A setup simulating a dovetail joint (Fig. 1) under fretting fatigue. The inserts show a cylindrical pad of loading component and a crack possibly specimen. The tangential interaction between contact surfaces is modeled by a Coulomb-type friction of a blade and a disk in a dovetail joint, respectively. When the setup (Fig. 2) is subjected to fatigue loading, i.e. cyclic r, a crack may nucleate at the contact surface in the specimen. The crack may be opened, closed, or partially both during a loading cycle. The non-penetration condition of opposite surfaces is enforced upon a closed crack as well as between the pad initiating and growing at the trailing edge of contact. The dimensions are scaled by a characteristic length scale L. tration of elements in and around the contact zone. The following solutions had all been subjected to a con- xy indicates tial-stres into tensi contact well as To for the 1510 B. Yang, S. Mall / Engineering Fracture Mechanics 75 (2008) 15071515 to the peak load and then unloaded to the half way down, i.e., loading ratio R = 0.5. Stresses along the contact surface at the peak load and the final unloading point are plotted in Fig. 4a and b. Compared to the previous case, a smaller contact zone with lower contact pressure r y , higher shear traction component s xy , and higher tangential on, showing a slight concentration, and finally diminishes. These figures show the characteristics of stress variation during a loading cycle before crack initiation in the setup simulating a dovetail joint as the accuracy of the numerical solution. understand the role of friction, another simulation was run with the same parameters as above except friction coecient in the contact zone being changed to 0.7. The system was loaded up monotonically concentration) at the leading edge of contact. Fig. 3bd shows the stress state after unloading. During the unloading process, the pressure, i.e. the normal traction component r y decreases. Reversed slip occurs at both of the contact edges, with a stick zone inside. The stick zone recedes gradually and diminishes. The tangential stress component r x at the trailing edge of contact (tensile at the peak load) quickly turns into compression. However, the tangential-stress component at the leading edge of contact (compressive at the peak load) turns that the contact zone is in the full slipping condition, i.e. under the gross slip condition. The tangen- s component r x is tensile and concentrated at the trailing edge of contact, but is compressive (without vergence check with mesh refinement. The final mesh is such that when the mesh density is doubled, the relative change of displacement is less than 0.1%. The first simulation was run with the system being loaded monotonically up to r = 0.005E, and then unloaded completely. The friction coecient in the contact zone f = 0.3. Stresses along the contact surface of the specimen are recorded at the peak load and three intermediate unloading levels. The results are plotted in Fig. 3ad. In Fig. 3a, the system is subjected to the peak load. The variation of shear traction component s Since the material is linearly elastic (and isotropic), the displacement at a boundary point can be expressed as an integral of weighted displacement and traction along the boundary and crack. It is given for the loading component and for the specimen, respectively, as 1 2 u i Z C ld u C3 ij p j C0 p C3 ij u j C138dC; 2 1 2 u i Z C sp u C3 ij p j C0 p C3 ij u j C138dC Z C cr p C3 ij w j dC; 3 where C (ld) and C (sp) are the boundaries of the loading component and the specimen, respectively, C (cr) is one side of a crack, u is the displacement, p is the traction, w is the displacement jump across a crack, and u C3 ij and p C3 ij are the fundamental solutions of displacement and traction of isotropic elasticity 1. To solve the crack prob- lem in a single-domain formulation, the following integral equation of traction is required, p i Z C sp U C3 ij p j C0 P C3 ij u j C138dC Z C cr P C3 ij w j dC 4 where U C3 ij and P C3 ij are combinations of derivatives of u C3 ij and p C3 ij , which can be found in 1 as well. The above Equations (2)(4) can be used to develop an ecient and accurate BE method to numerically solve the above nonlinear boundary-value problem. One may refer to 1 for general details of the numerical technique, and 24 for particular treatment of the nonlinear problem of frictional contact and crack. An iterative scheme is necessary to solve the present nonlinear problem. 3. Contact stress analysis In the following simulations, we set the loading direction b =30C176, radius of the cylindrical pad r =10L, and other geometrical parameters as shown in Fig. 2, where L is a length scale used to normalize all quantities of the dimension of length. A change in b or in r would aect significantly the magnitude but aect very little the characteristics of the stress field in the contact zone. The Youngs modulus E is used to normalize all quantities of the dimension of stress. The Poisons ratio m is set equal to 0.3. We adopted an adaptive mesh with concen- (tensile) stress r x concentration at the trailing edge of contact are observed with higher value of B. Yang, S. Mall / Engineering Fracture Mechanics 75 (2008) 15071515 1511 -4E-3 0E+0 4E-3 -4E-3 0E+0 4E-3 xy x xy x ij / friction coecient f in the contact zone. However, there appears to be little change in the qualitative features of the stress distribution along the contact surface. To prepare for the next analysis of two-stage crack growth, the amplitude of stress oscillation is examined with loading ratio R = 0.5 and friction coecient f = 0.3 and 0.7. Variations of the maximum normal-stress amplitude, the maximum shear-stress amplitude, and angle of the maximum shear-stress amplitude along the contact surface are plotted in Figs. 5 and 6a and b, respectively. The angle of the maximum normal-stress amplitude is equal to the angle of the maximum shear-stress amplitude plus 45C176. First, it is seen that the trail- ing edge of contact experiences more severe fatigue loading than the leading edge of contact. Thus, the next -8E-3 -0.12 -0.08 -0.04 0 0.04 0.08 0.12 -8E-3 -0.12 -0.08 -0.04 0 0.04 0.08 0.12 -8E-3 -4E-3 0E+0 4E-3 -0.12 -0.08 -0.04 0 0.04 0.08 0.12 -8E-3 -4E-3 0E+0 4E-3 -0.12 -0.08 -0.04 0 0.04 0.08 0.12 y y xy x y xy x y x/L x/L ij / Fig. 3. Variation of stress components (normalized by Youngs modulus E) along contact surface at (a) (peak load) r = 0.005 E; (b) (unloaded) r = 0.0035 E; (c) r = 0.002 E; and (d) r = 0.0005 E. In the case, f = 0.3. -1E-2 -5E-3 0E+0 5E-3 1E-2 -0.12 -0.08 -0.04 0 0.04 0.08 0.12 -1E-2 -5E-3 0E+0 5E-3 1E-2 -0.12 -0.08 -0.04 0 0.04 0.08 0.12 y xy x y xy x x/L x/L ij / Fig. 4. Variation of stress components (normalized by Youngs modulus E) along contact surface at (a) (peak load) r = 0.005 E and (b) (unloaded) r = 0.0025 E. In the case, f = 0.7. 1512 B. Yang, S. Mall / Engineering Fracture Mechanics 75 (2008) 15071515 -4E-3 0E+0 4E-3 8E-3 -0.12 -0.08 -0.04 0 0.04 0.08 0.12 x/L f = 0.3 f = 0.7 / Fig. 5. Variation of maximum normal-stress amplitude along contact surface with friction coecient f = 0.3 and 0.7. 4E-3 6E-3 25 50 f = 0.7 f = 0.7 f = 0.3 deg ) step of crack analysis will focus on the former. It is also seen that there are two peaks of the maximum normal- stress amplitude. There exists a higher peak at the edge of contact at the peak load, and a lower one within the reversed slip zone after unloading (at one half of the peak load). There is only one peak of the maximum shear- stress amplitude in the reversed slip zone. Most importantly, it is shown that both of the maximum normal and the maximum shear-stress amplitudes exhibit higher magnitude and higher gradient with greater value of friction coecient in the contact zone. Thus, the resulting stress field would be increasingly hazardous for crack initiation during fretting fatigue as the magnitude of friction coecient increases (due to surface roughening). In addition, the angle of the maximum shear-stress amplitude varies from about 5C176 to 45C176 with location from the reversed stick-slip boundary to the trailing edge of contact at the peak load. 4. Crack analysis In the section, we examine the process of two-stage fretting-fatigue crack growth in a dovetail-joint-like configuration as shown in Fig. 2. The case of friction coecient in the contact zone equal to 0.7 and loading ratio equal to 0.5 that was studied before cracking in the previous section is considered here. To conduct the crack analysis, a surface-breaking crack is introduced to the specimen at the location of highest shear-stress amplitude and at various angles ranging from 25C176 to 45C176 about the contact surface. This range of angles is chosen because in those planes, appreciable shear-stress amplitude has been observed, as shown in Fig. 6. Appreciable shear-stress amplitude has been found for angles between 5C176 and 25C176 as well. However, in this range of angles, the initial crack is always closed for the range of crack length examined. Thus, it is not considered in the following discussion. The location of the initial crack is fixed at the location of highest 0E+0 2E-3 -0.12 -0.08 -0.04 0 0.04 0.08 0.12 -50 -25 0 -0.12 -0.08 -0.04 0 0.04 0.08 0.12 x/L x/L / f = 0.3 Angle ( Fig. 6. Variation of (a) maximum shear-stress amplitude and (b) corresponding angle along contact surface with friction coecient f = 0.3 and 0.7. shear-stress amplitude because through extensive simulations with initial crack location about it, the crack behavior was found to be insensitive to the location. The crack surfaces are assumed to be frictionless for the sake of simplicity of discussion. The crack-surface friction is believed to alter only quantitatively the fol- lowing discussion. The crack-tip SIFs are calculated for various crack lengths at the instances of maximum and minimum loads. At the instant of minimum load, the cracks are all closed. At the instant of peak load, the crack is closed for all the lengths considered if the angle is equal to 25C176. For angles greater than that, the cracks are open at small lengths, but are closed at longer lengths. The variations of the mean value and the amplitude of the cyclic mode-II SIF along the crack paths are plotted in F