《語言教學(xué)的流派》筆記

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1、Task-Based Language Teaching Definition Task-Based Language Teaching (TBLT) refers to an approach based on the use of tasks as the core unit of planning and instruction in language teaching. The relationships between TBLT and Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) Task-based language teaching: ?

2、 a logical development of CLT ? formed part of the communicative language teaching movement from the 1980s. Eg: ◎Activities that involve real communication are essential for language learning ◎Activities in which language is used for carrying out meaningful tasks promote learning ◎Language that i

3、s meaningful to the learner supports the learning process ? The role of tasks has received further support from some researchers in second language acquisition (SLA), who are interested in developing pedagogical applications of SLA. ? Task is regarded as the potential building blocks of SLA instr

4、uction. ? SLA research has focused on the strategies and cognitive process employed by second language learners ? Language learning is believed to depend on immersing students not merely in “comprehensible input” but in tasks that require them to negotiate meaning and engage in naturalistic an

5、d meaningful communication. The key assumptions of task-based instruction are summarized by Feez（1998:17) as : The focus is on process rather than procedure. Basic elements are purposeful activities and tasks that emphasize communication and meaning. Learner learn language by interacting communi

6、catively and purposefully while engaged in the activities and tasks Activities and tasks can be either: those that learners might need to achieve in real life; those that have a pedagogical purpose specific to the classroom. Activities and tasks of a task-based syllabus are sequenced according to d

7、ifficulty. The difficulty of a task depends on a range of factors including the previous experience of the learner, the complexity of the task, the language required to undertake the task, and the degree of support available what is “task” ? A task is an activity or goal that is carried out usin

8、g language, such as finding a solution to a puzzle, reading a map, and giving directions, making a telephone call etc. Nunan (1989:10) offers this definition: the task is a piece of classroom work which involves learners in comprehending, manipulating, producing or interacting in the target language

9、 while their attention is principally focused on meaning rather than form. And also have a sense of complexity. ? “Task” first appeared in the vocational training practices of the 1950s. Task focus here first derived from training design concerns of military regarding new military technologies an

10、d occupational specialties of the period. Task analysis initially focus on solo psychomotor tasks for which little communication or collaboration was involved, and largely manual tasks were translated into training tasks. Task-based training identified several key areas of concern: Analysis of rea

11、l world task-use situations The translation of those into teaching task descriptions The detailed design of instructional tasks The sequencing of instructional tasks in classroom training/teaching Four major categories of team performance function in task-based instruction Orientation function:

12、 process for generating and distributing information necessary to task accomplishment to team members Organizational function: process necessary for members to coordinate actions necessary for performance Adaption function: process occurring as a team members adapt their performance to each

13、other to complete the task Motivational function: defining team objectives and “energizing the group’ to complete the task What is academic task? ? The academic task is the mechanism through which the curriculum is enacted for students (Doyle 1983: 161) ? Academic tasks are defined as four im

14、portant dimensions: ◎The products students are asked to produce ◎The operations they are required to use in order to produce these products ◎The cognitive operations required and resources available ◎The accountability system involved Definition of a Task ◆Prabhu: a task is “ an activities w

15、hich requires learners to arrive at an outcome from given information through some process of thought, and which allows teachers to control and regulate that process.” ◆ Crookes : a task is “ a piece of work or an activity, usually with a specified objective, undertaken as part of an educational co

16、urse, at work, or used to elicit data for research.” Willis (1996) proposes six task types built on more or less traditional knowledge hierarchies. listing(列舉型任務(wù)) work in groups: for a healthy lifestyle, what you should do and shouldnt do. make a list (brainstorming, fact-finding) ordering an

17、d sorting(排序與分類型任務(wù)) In the lesson of "How to make a milk shake?", disturb the main process, then rearrange them according to the actual order comparing (比較型任務(wù)） What things are the same at Spring Festival and Christmas Day? What things are different? problem solving(解決問題型任務(wù)) think of three low

18、budget solutions to the problem of looking after a cat when the family is absent. sharing personal experiences(分享個(gè)人經(jīng)驗(yàn)型任務(wù)) After students plant trees, ask them to talk about the significance of planting trees. creative tasks (創(chuàng)造型任務(wù)） work in groups: ask students to discuss their ideal bedroom, a

19、nd make a sketch, with there be pattern. Pica, Kanagy and Falodun (1993) classify tasks according to the type of interaction that occurs in task accomplishment. Jigsaw tasks(拼圖式任務(wù))：These involve learners combining different pieces of information to form a whole. Information-gap tasks(信息差型任務(wù))：o

20、ne set of information--a complementary set of information--negotiate and find out--complete an activity Problem-solving tasks (解決問題型任務(wù)): Students are given a problem and a set of information. They must arrive at a solution to the problem. Decision- making tasks(選擇決定型任務(wù))：Students are given a probl

21、em for which there are a number of possible outcomes and they must choose one through negotiation and discussion. Opinion exchange tasks(交換觀點(diǎn)型任務(wù)): Learners engage in discussion and exchange of ideas. They do not need to reach agreement. Other characteristics of tasks have also been described one

22、-way or two-way: whether the task involves a one-way exchange of information or two-way exchange. convergent or divergent: whether the students achieve a common goal or several different goals. collaborative or competitive: whether the students collaborate to carry out a task or compete with each

23、 other on a task. single or multiple outcomes: whether there is a single outcome or many different outcomes are possible. concrete or abstract language: whether the task involves the use of concrete language or abstract language. simple or complex processing: whether the task requires relativel

24、y simple or complex cognitive processing. simple or complex language: whether the linguistic demands of the task are relatively simple or complex. reality-based or not reality-based: whether the task mirrors a real-world activity or is a pedagogical activity not found in the real world. teacher

25、 roles A central role of the teacher is in selecting, adapting ,and /or creating the tasks themselves and then forming these into an instructional sequence in keeping with learner needs, interests and language skill level. 任務(wù)型教學(xué)的優(yōu)點(diǎn): 1.注重真實(shí)場(chǎng)景下的、以明確目標(biāo)為導(dǎo)向；它要求學(xué)生通過完成任務(wù)的學(xué)習(xí)活動(dòng)來掌握真實(shí)、實(shí)用和有意義的語言。 2.提倡以教師教學(xué)

26、為主導(dǎo)、以學(xué)生的學(xué)習(xí)為主體。3.倡導(dǎo)體驗(yàn)、實(shí)踐、參與、探究、交流和合作的學(xué)習(xí)方式 Task: In the lesson, the students make a mini picture-story book. Teaching aids: a set of slides and several sets of pictures about the story of the Moonlight Sonata; a tape recorder and some CDs. I. Pre-task -- Collecting information about Beethoven and

27、his music. (The students are asked to collect information about Beethoven and some of his music before class.) 1. The students share their information in groups. (group work) 2. The speakers from each group give a report to the class. (class work) 3. The teacher plays some CDs for the students a

28、nd helps the students to know something about Beethovens music. (class work) (In this task, the students will learn something about Beethoven and classical music, especially Beethoven s music -- the Moonlight Sonata.) II. While-task -- Dubbing and captioning a picture-story book. (T hands out a s

29、et of pictures to each group.) 1. The Ss in groups make up a story of their own about the Moonlight Sonata.(group work) 2. The speakers from each group tell their own stories. (class work) 3. The Ss read the text and check their stories. (individual work) 4. The Ss in groups improve their story,

30、 or make up another story based on their understanding of the text. Meanwhile, they can help one another in groups, and the T offers help when necessary. (group work) 5. The speakers from some groups dub the slides. (class work) 6. The Ss in groups caption the pictures. (group work) 7. The Ss pre

31、sent their products; the class and the T evaluate them. (class work) 8. The Ss listen to the tape and read the text aloud. (class work) III. Post-task -- Making up a mini picture-story book about Beethoven and his Moonlight Sonata. (The students will finish the task individually af

32、ter the class.) l. Make up a mini picture-story book "Beethoven and his Moonlight Sonata”. 2. Present the picture-story books in the next class. （1）課堂效率低，難以保證大班額課堂教學(xué)任務(wù)的完成 （2）課堂的組織和任務(wù)的設(shè)計(jì)與實(shí)施過分依賴教師的教學(xué)能力和教學(xué)水平，故在目前很難保證大面積的教學(xué)質(zhì)量的提升 （3）課堂中學(xué)生的個(gè)體活動(dòng)難以有效監(jiān)督和控制，反饋效率低 Contend-Based Instruct

33、ion Definition of CBI: Content-Based Instruction (CBI) refers to an approach to second language teaching in which teaching is organized around the content or information that students will acquire, rather that around a linguistic or other type of syllabus. ? Krahnke’s definition: It is the

34、 teaching of content or information in the language being learned with little or no direct or explicit effort to teach the language itself separately from the content being taught. Definition of Content: ? William Safire: If any word in the English language is hot, buzzworthy and finger-snapp

35、ingly with it, surpassing even millennium in both general discourse and insiderese, that work is content. Get used to it, because we won’t soon get over it. It refers to the substance or subject matter that we learn or communicate through language rather than the language used to convey it.

36、 Features CBI likewise draws on the principles of Communicative Language Teaching; Classrooms should focus on real communication and the exchange of information, and content should be the subject matters from outside the domain of language The language that is being taught could be used

37、 to present subject matter, and the students would learn the language as a by-product of learning about real-world content. Language across the Curriculum ( England) ? A focus on reading and writing in all subjects, and language skills should also be taught in the content subjects; ? “ Every teac

38、her, an English teacher”; ? Subject-matter texts appeared and collaboration was emphasized; ? Integration of subject matter and language teaching goals. Immersion Education (Canada) ? The regular school curriculum is taught through the medium of the foreign language. ? Vehicle ? Goals: high le

39、vel of proficiency; positive attitudes; English language skills corresponding to the students; gaining designated skills and knowledge. Immigrant On-Arrival Programs (Australia) ? Focus on the language newly arrived immigrants in a country need for survival; ? Deal with kinds of real-world conten

40、t; ? Direct Method, role play and simulations; competencies learners are presumed to need in different situations. Programs for Students with Limited English Proficiency (SLEP) ? For children who are immigrants, and those whose language competence is insufficient; ? Focus on giving students the

41、language and other skills needed to enter the regular curriculum Language for Specific Purposes (LSP) ? Learners carry out specific roles and acquire content and real-world skills through the medium of a second language; ? Branches: EB, EST, EAP; EB, EOP, EAP;

42、 EB, EST, EAP. 1.Approach: Theory of language ? Content-Based Instruction is grounded on the following two central principles: ? 1.People learn a second language more successfully when they use the language as a means of acquiring information, rather than as an end in itsel

43、f.(motivations) ? 2.Content-Based Instruction better reflects learners needs for learning a second language. (need to be able to access the content of academic learning and teaching) A number of assumptions about the nature of Language underlie CBI: ? ①Language is text-and discourse-based: ? Th

44、e role of language as a vehicle for learning content; focus of teaching is on how meaning and information are communicated and constructed through texts and discourse. ? The linguistic units that are central and account for how create coherence and cohesion within speech events and text types. ?

45、 For examples: ? speech events: meetings, lectures, and ? discussions. ? text types: letters, reports, essays, ? descriptions, or book chapters. ? ②Language use draws on integrated skills: Language use involves several skills togeth

46、er in the real world. ? Topic-or theme-based courses provide a good basis for an integrated skills approach because the topics selected provide coherence and continuity across skill areas and focus on the use of language in connected discourse rather than isolated fragments. ? ③.Language is purpo

47、seful： ? Language is used for specific purposes. The purposes may be academic, vocation, social, or recreational but it gives direction, shape, and ultimately meaning to discourse and texts. ? Language contains great potential for communicating meaning. ? In order to make the content the teache

48、rs are focusing on more comprehensiable to their students, they should modify such “simplifications” in the language they use in teaching. ? These modifications include simplification(簡(jiǎn)單化), well-formedness(結(jié)構(gòu)好), explicitness(明確化), regularization(規(guī)則化), and redundancy(重復(fù)化). 2.Approach:Theory of le

49、arning ? People learn a second language more successfully when they use the language as a means of acquiring information, rather than as an end in itself. ? Successful language learning occurs when students are presented with target language material in a meaningful, contextualized form with the

50、primary focus on acquiring information (Brinton et al. Wesche, 1989; 17). ? A number of studies(e.g., Scott 1974; Collier 1989; Grandin 1993; Wesche 1993) that support the position that in formal educational settings, second languages are best learned when the focus is on mastery of content rater t

51、han on mastery of language per se. ? CBI thus stands in contrast to traditional approaches to language teaching. Additional assumptions derived from the core principle: ? 1.People learn a second language most successfully when the information they are acquiring is perceived as interesting, useful

52、, and leading to a desired goal. ? 2.Some content areas are more useful as a basis for language learning than others. ? 3.Students learn best when instruction addresses students needs. ? 4.Teaching builds on the previous experience of the learners. Objectives ? The objectives in a typical CBI

53、course are stated as objectives of the content course ? Achievement of content course objectives is considered as necessary and sufficient evidence that language learning objectives have been achieved as well. ? An exception ? In theme-based CBI, language learning objectives drive the selection

54、of theme topics. ? That is, “there are often set linguistic objectives in the curriculum, and thematic modules are selected for the degree to which they provide compatible contexts for woking towards these objectives. Objectives (linguistic; strategic; cultural) ? to activate and develop existin

55、g English language skills ? to acquire learning skills and strategies that could be applied in future language development opportunities ? to develop general academic skills applicable to university studies in all subject areas ? to broaden students’ understanding of English-speaking peoples Sy

56、llabus ? It is typically only CBI following the theme-based model in which content and instructional sequence is chosen according to language learning goals. ? The theme-based model uses the syllabus type referred to as a topical syllabus, the organization of which is built around specific topics

57、and subtopics Instructional focus ? language skills improvement ? vocabulary building ? discourse organization ? communicative interaction ? study skills ? synthesis of content materials and grammar Six universal knowledge structures ? specific, practical elements Description, Sequ

58、ence, Choice ? general, theoretical elements Concept/Classification, Principles, Evaluation Learner roles One goal of CBI is for learners to become autonomous so that they come to understand their owning learning process and ... take charge of their own learning from the very start, and s

59、upport each other in collaborative modes of learning. Learners themselves may be sources of content and joint participants in the selection of topics and activities. Such participation has been found to be highly motivating and has resulted in a course changing its direction in order to better me

60、et the needs of students. They need commitment to the new approach to LL and CBI adcocates warn that some students may not find this new set of learner roles to their liking and may less than ready and wiling participants in CBI courses. So students need to be well prepared both psychologically

61、and cognitively CBI and, if they are not adequately primed, then “missing schemata needs to be provided or students need to be kept from enrolling until they are ready ”. The role of teachers Instructors must be more than just good language teachers: – Be knowledgeable in the subject matter and

62、 able to elicit that knowledge from their ss, – Keep context and comprehensibility foremost in their planning and presentations, – Be responsible for selecting and adapting authentic materials for use in class, – Become student needs analysts, and – Create truly learner-centered classrooms.

63、 To fulfill the roles, teachers need skills as follows: 1 Varying the format of classroom instruction 2Using group work and team-building techniques 3 Organizing jigsaw reading arrangements 4 Defining the background knowledge and language skills required for student success 5 Helping students

64、 develop coping strategies 6 Using process approaches to writing 7 Using appropriate errror correction techniques 8 Developing and maintaining high levels of student esteem. (Stryker and Leaver 1993:293) The role of materials In CBI, materials that facilitate LL are the Ms that are used typical

65、ly with the subject matter of the content course. A rich variety of M types should be identified and used with the central concern being the notion that Ms are authentic. In one sense, authenticity implies that the materials are like the kinds of materials used in native-language instruction. In a

66、nother sense, authenticity refers to introduction of , say, newspaper and magazine articles and any other media materials “that were not originally produced for language teaching purposes” The use of realia: tourist guidebooks, technical journals, railway timetable, newspaper ads, radio and TB broadcasts, etc. And one cautions that “ textbooks are contrary to the very concept of CBI- and good language teaching in general” Comprehensibility is as critical as authenticity and it has bee